Mint - Mentha Sp.

Family: Mint

Perennial herb from rhizomes, glabrous to hairy. Stem: generally ascending to erect, generally branched. Leaf: petioled to sessile; blade elliptic to ovate or lanceolate, toothed to lobed. Inflorescence: head-like in leaf axils or collectively spike- or panicle-like and subtended by bracts. Flower: calyx ± radial, generally 10-veined, lobes 4–5, equal or not; corolla ± 2-lipped, lips generally equal, upper lip notched, lower lip 3-lobed; stamens 4, ± equal, generally exserted, filaments glabrous, anthers segments parallel, distinct. Fruit: nutlets ± ellipsoid, tip rounded.
18 species: temperate. North America, Eurasia. (Latin: ancient name for mint) [Tucker et al. 1980 Taxon 29:233–255] Cult for oils, flavoring, herbs. Hybrids in California generally sterile, spreading from rhizomes.
Unabridged note: Many cultivated and naturalized populations derived from hybridization, generally polyploid, some sterile, reproducing vegetatively.

Local Species;

1. Mentha aquatica - water mint
2. Mentha arvensis - field mint
3. Mentha pulegium - pennyroyal
4. Mentha spicata - spearmint
5. Mentha suaveolens - applemint

Possibly Found Locally

1. Mentha x piperita - peppermint - Washington state, not Vancouver island

Other Mentioned Species: M. spicata, M. piperita.

Hazards
Since mint is a stimulant, it should be used carefully with overactive children. In Hygieia, Parvati states that nursing mothers should avoid mint as the herb may decrease milk supply. Mint is contraindicated for those taking homeopathic preparations, because the herb's oils can neutralize the effectiveness of the remedy.

Edible Uses

• Leaves
• Young mint leaves are a nutritious addition to summer salads; they are high in vitamins A, C, and K, and the minerals iron, calcium, and manganese. Add mint to soups and omelettes. Steep leaves for hot or iced tea. Garnish.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
  

Other Uses

• Cosmetic Use
• "Mint is a fragrant and pleasantly invigorating cosmetic herb. Add it to herbal baths to soothe and soften the skin, and to footbaths if troubled by calluses. For a natural deodorant, splash mint tea on your underarms." ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
  
• "Mint is excellent as an ingredient in emollient face creams. Use leaves in facial steams and masks for dry skin." ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
  
• "Mint vinegar, diluted with water, is a hair rinse for dandruff. Mint mouthwash and toothpaste are common commercial products. Pure mint oil is frequently added to shampoos, massage oils, salves, and soaps, as well as medicines, foods, and liqueurs; the oil is obtained through distillation. It takes three hundred pounds of mint to yield one pound of oil. Making this essential oil is a multimillion- dollar industry." ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
  
• "Besides all the above, you can add mint to potpourris, dream pillows, homemade soaps, and herbal tobaccos." ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
  

Peppermint oil is one of the most widely used of the volatile oils. It has certain definite pharmaceutical proper- tics and is used extensively as a flavoring. It has been estimated that approximately five percent is employed in pharmaceutical preparations, 15 percent in miscellaneous flavorings, 15 percent in dentifrices, 15 percent in confections and about 50 percent in chewing gum. Spearmint oil is used primarily for flavoring chewing gum and dentifrices.
The production of peppermint and spearmint oils in the United States is second only to that of turpentine in the volatile-oil industry. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
Spearmint in the Midwest produces more oil per acre on the average than peppermint, but this factor is off-set by the fact that peppermint oil normally commands a higher price, making possible a greater net return. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
Many wild mints that have oils resembling both peppermint and spear- mint 8re found along streams and in farm yards. These might be escapes from commercial plantings, but in most cases they yield inferior oils when distilled. It is a sound practice to eradicate all such native types before commercial production of mint oil is attempted. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}

Distillation The oils of peppermint and spearmint occur in minute glands that are found mainly on the undersides of the leaves. A limited number of glands is also present on the stems, stolons and upper sur- face of the leaves, but their effect on the yield of oil is negligible. The globules of oil are held in place by a thin membrane resembling very pliable cellophane, and the oil is not released until this membrane is ruptured. Mint oils are removed from the plant by steam distillation.
Stills generally consist of a boiler that carries at least 80 pounds pressure, two to eight galvanized sheet metal tubs or vats, a con- denser for each tub, receivers or separators for collecting the oil, pumps for circulating the cooling water and hoists and hay forks for loading and unloading the tubs.
Stationary tubs are from six to 13 feet deep and six to eight feet across the top. They are tapered slightly from top to bottom to facilitate removal of " spent" charges. Either they are sunk in the ground or a work platform is built up around them. If a field chopper is not used, the partially-dried hay is loaded onto wagons and hauled to the still where it is lifted into the tubs with hay forks and mechanical hoists. It is steamed slightly and tramped down. A vapor-tight cover that is connected to a condenser is placed on the tub when it is filled completely. If choppers and portable tubs arc used, the tub is filled in the field and brought to the still where it is connected to the steam line and the condenser. When the tubs are thus ready, the steam is admitted at the bottom in such a way that it is spread out and permeates the whole " charge ". The increase in temperature ruptures the oil glands and vaporizes the oil by a process of hydrodiffusion. The mixture of vaporized oil and steam passes into the condenser where it is reduced to oil and water. Several types of condensers are in use, but the most popular one consists of a worm of galvanized sheet metal pipe submerged in cold water in a large tank. Aluminum condensers are becoming increasingly popular and indications are that they will replace the galvanized type. The mixture of oil and water flows from the condenser into a receiver where the oil and water separate, the oil floating on the surface of the water. The receivers are patterned after a Florentine flask so that the water is drawn off at the bottom just fast enough to keep the receiver from running over. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
A single distillation takes from 30 to 45 minutes, and when the operator decides that there is not enough oil coming over to make it worthwhile to continue the process, he stops the water flowing from the receiver, thereby causing the oil to rise to the top of the receiver and flow out through a spout into a suitable container.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
Oil yields may vary greatly from year to year, depending on the growing sea- son and the location. Yield per acre and production, as reported by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, are given in Table 1. A progres- sive grower on good land in Indiana will produce 40 to 50 pounds of oil per acre, and in certain sections of the West, yields of 80 to 100 pounds per acre are not uncommon.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
Mint oil is a stable product when stored in drums* or other containers that are well filled and adequately sealed. Oxidation takes place if air is admitted to a storage drum, forming a resin that must then be removed by re- distillation. Upwards of 15 percent of the volume of the oil may be lost during this process.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}

• The term "drum " or "barrel " of mint oil usually refers to a galvanized container of 55 gallons capacity that weighs approximately 400 pounds when filled.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
  

Medicinal Uses
Herbalists recommend mint as an appetite stimulant and digestive aid; try sipping a small glass of mint-flavored wine (or tea) after hearty holiday dinners. Mint is reported therapeutic for upset stomach, nausea, and morning sickness; mint-elder flower tea is recommended for crampy or delayed menstruation.
Applied as a compress, mint is said to relieve headache and other pains. Inhaling mint is a folk remedy substitute for smelling salts. Try simmering mint in a stovetop pan of water if your sinuses are blocked.
Other mint uses include adding leaves to salves for itchy skin conditions, sipping a few drops essential oil of mint diluted in a cup of water to relieve gas, and using mint juice to soothe earaches.

• Smoke
• Mentha spp. (Lamiaceae). mints. The leaves of several species of mints were smoked by Native Americans as soothing agents (Kavasch 1979). ^[UAPDS]

Historical Use

Mint became one of the most famous medieval "strewing herbs." It was placed in ". . . chambers and places of recreation, pleasure and repose," says Gerard, because ". . . the smell rejoiceth the heart of man." In England, it was strewn in courtrooms as an "odor-eater" to protect judges from the stench of their unsanitarily housed prisoners.
Other ancient mint uses included eating the herb as protection from the bites of snakes, scorpions, and mad dogs, and as a cure for melancholy and frigidity. The Arabs reportedly ate mint daily to increase virility; the herb is still a common ingredient in their cuisine.
Inhaling mint fragrance is reputed to stimulate memory. However, mint is most often associated with organs, such as the stomach, which are dominated astrologically by the moon; using mint for indigestion is a centuries-old custom still popular in modern times.

Cultivation
The plant is more difficult to control than establish and does exceedingly well in moist soil in sun or partial shade. Roots should be divided in spring or fall. In northern regions, the plant should be mulched in autumn. Every three years the roots should be separated and replanted. Fertilize with nettle tea or seaweed emulsion. Do not apply manure, as it encourages growth of a rust fungus.
In A Modern Herbal, Grieve reports that milk from mint-fed cows and goats will not coagulate properly for cheese-making. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}

Oil production harvesting
No rule-of-thumb method for deter- mining the proper time of harvest is reliable, and growers usually rely on past experience to determine the proper time to cut. The most satisfactory method for the Midwest is to run trial distillations when the mint appears to be about ready and then apply a test for free menthol, developed by Ellis, Swift and Thornton (4), that indicates the proper stage for harvesting. Under the arid growing conditions of the West Coast area, however, this test has not proven of value and mint is not harvested until it is in full flower. Mint is cut with conventional mowing machines and left in the field until it is partially dried. It is then windrowed and, if necessary, allowed to dry further. Complete drying should be avoided because it results in heavy leaf loss during subsequent operations. Some drying is essential, however, because it makes the crop easier to handle and reduces distillation costs materially. Mechanical choppers for loading mint in the field have been developed recently. The partially-dried hay is picked up from the windrow, chopped and blown into wagons or portable distillation tubs. This method makes it possible to process from one-fourth to one-third more material per tub of equivalent size than is possible when unchopped hay is used.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}

Propagation
Mint is propagated vegetatively, using stolons or young plants obtained in spring from established plantings. Planting stock is raised by the producer or purchased from another grower. Fields that are set aside as a source of planting stock should be productive and disease- free. The stolons are lifted with potato diggers or plows and are shaken with pitchforks to remove excess soil. Planting stock should be used immediately or piled up and covered with soil to prevent dehydration.^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
A furrow-opener is used to make trenches four to six inches deep about three feet apart. These are laid off just ahead of the planters so that the soil is still moist when the stolons are dropped. Most stolons are planted by hand, al- though numerous planting machines have been tried. When planting by hand, a worker carries a sack of stolons on his back and drops the pieces end to end in the furrow. He steps directly on them to firm them in place and then drags soil over them with his feet. If additional covering is necessary, the field can be dragged after planting is completed. Stolons can be planted in either fall or spring, but the majority of growers favor spring planting.
An acre of good mint in organic soil should produce enough stolons to plant 10 to 15 acres, while in mineral soil an acre will produce stock for only three to five acres.
Young plants are used to start mint fields when for some reason the grower fails to get the field planted with stolons. Plants are obtained by pulling them in spring from established fields after they have reached a height of six to eight inches. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}
Control of weeds in mint fields is extremely important because their presence in the mint hay at distillation may discolor the oil and cause it to have a disagreeable odor and taste. ^{[Ellis&Stevenson]}

Water Mint - Mentha aquatica

Family: Mint - Lamiaceae Family
Other Names: Lemon Mint.

Identification
" Mentha aquatica is a PERENNIAL growing to 1 m (3ft 3in) by 1 m (3ft 3in).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 6 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from Jul to October, and the seeds ripen from Sep to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil and can grow in water." [PFAF]

General: Perennial herb from a creeping rhizome; stems erect, 15-90 cm tall, simple or branched, 4-angled; strongly lemon-scented, but not pungent.
Leaves: Opposite, usually egg-shaped, 2-6 (9) cm long, 1-4 cm wide, more or less hairy, toothed, tips pointed or rounded, bases wedge-shaped to somewhat lobed; stalked.
Flowers: Inflorescence of a terminal head of 1 to 3 flower clusters and usually 1 to 3 axillary flower clusters below; lower bracts leaf-like, upper lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, hidden by the flowers; flower stalks hairy; corollas tubular, light purple, 4-lobed, the lobes nearly equal; calyces bell-shaped, nearly equally 5-toothed, hairy.
Fruits: Nutlets, 4 clustered together, egg-shaped. [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat / Range "Wet to moist riverbanks and shorelines in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC, known only from the lower Fraser Valley; introduced from Europe."[E-flora]
"Swamps, fen, marshes, near rivers, streams and ponds, in wet woods[9]. Europe, including Britain, south and east to N. Africa and southwest Asia Also in S. Africa, Madeira." [PFAF]

Origin Status: Exotic

Hazards
"Although no records of toxicity have been seen for this species, large quantities of some members of this genus, especially when taken in the form of the extracted essential oil, can cause abortions so some caution is advised." [PFAF]

Edible Uses

• Leaves
• "Leaves - raw or cooked. A strong distinctive peppermint-like fragrance[183]. Used as a flavouring in salads or cooked foods[5]. The leaves are too pungent for most people to use as a flavouring[244]. A herb tea is made from the leaves[21, 183]." [PFAF]
  

Other Uses

• Repellent
• "The plant repels flies, mice and rats[14, 20, 244]. It has a pleasant, fresh scent and was formerly used as a strewing herb and has been strewn in granaries to keep mice and rats off the grain[14, 244]." [PFAF]
  
• Essential Oil
• "The plant, harvested before flowering, yields about 0.8% essential oil[240]." [PFAF]
  
• Herbal bath/pillow
• "The fresh or dried plant is very good when used in herbal baths and can also be used in herb pillows[244]." [PFAF]
  

Medicinal Uses

• Leaves
• "The leaves are anodyne, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, emetic, refrigerant, stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vasodilator[4, 9, 21]. A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, digestive disorders and various minor ailments[222]. It is also used as a mouth-wash and a gargle for treating sore throats, ulcers, bad breath etc[9]. The leaves are harvested as the plant comes into flower and can be dried for later use[238]." [PFAF]
  
• Essential Oil: "The essential oil in the leaves is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses[222]." [PFAF]

Along with several other species, the dried leaves of this mint were smoked twice a day in Venda, South Africa, to treat certain mental illnesses (Arnold and Gulumian 1984). In Libya, oil extracted from the leaves was used to produce menthol cigarettes (Hussein 1985).[UAPDS]

Cultivation
"Succeeds in most soils and situations so long as the soil is not too dry[1, 16, 200]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. A sunny position is best for production of essential oils, but it also succeeds in partial shade. Plants can grow in water up to 15cm deep[24]. Most mints have fairly aggressive spreading roots and, unless you have the space to let them roam, they need to be restrained by some means such as planting them in containers that are buried in the soil[K]. Hybridizes freely with other members of this genus. The whole plant, especially when bruised, has a pungent aroma of bergamot[245]. The flowers are especially attractive to bees and butterflies[24]. A good companion for brassicas[14]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]." [PFAF]

Propagation
"Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. Germination is usually fairly quick. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in the summer. Mentha species are very prone to hybridisation and so the seed cannot be relied on to breed true. Even without hybridisation, seedlings will not be uniform and so the content of medicinal oils etc will vary. When growing plants with a particular aroma it is best to propagate them by division[K]. Division can be easily carried out at almost any time of the year, though it is probably best done in the spring or autumn to allow the plant to establish more quickly. Virtually any part of the root is capable of growing into a new plant. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. However, for maximum increase it is possible to divide the roots up into sections no more than 3cm long and pot these up in light shade in a cold frame. They will quickly become established and can be planted out in the summer." [PFAF]

Synonyms

• Mentha piperi var. citrata (Ehrh.) Boivin (pro nm.)
• Mentha aquatica var. crispa (L.) Benth.
• Mentha citrata
• Mentha crispa L.
• Mentha dumetorum Schult.
• Mentha hirsuta.
• Mentha piperata subsp. citrata
• Mentha piperita subsp. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq.
• Mentha var. citrata

Pennyroyal - Mentha pulegium

Family: Mint - Lamiaceae Family

Identification
"Mentha pulegium is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.4 m (1ft 4in) by 0.6 m (2ft).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 7 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from Aug to October, and the seeds ripen from Sep to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.It is noted for attracting wildlife.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil." [PFAF]

General: Perennial herb from a creeping rhizome; stems reclining to ascending, stout, 10-60 cm long, short-hairy, often red, 4-angled.
Leaves: Opposite, narrowly egg-shaped to elliptic, 1-2 cm long, 0.6-1 cm wide, tips rounded, bases somewhat wedge-shaped, minutely-hairy, gland-dotted, margins somewhat toothed, 1-6 teeth on each side; short-stalked; uppermost leaves reduced, more or less unstalked.
Flowers: Inflorescence of many separated, axillary flower clusters, subtended by leaf-like bracts barely longer than flowers; corollas tubular, violet to lavender, 5-8 mm long, 4-lobed, the lobes nearly equal, hairy outside, the tube somewhat swollen on one side below the mouth; calyces cone- to bell-shaped, 2.5-4 mm long, short-hairy and hairy within, weakly 2-lipped, the lower 2 teeth narrower than upper 3.
Fruits: Nutlets, 4 clustered together, egg-shaped.

Habitat / Range "Moist to wet waste places in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC; introduced from Europe." [PFAF]

"Moist meadows and sandy soils by streams etc[9, 17]. Central and southern Europe, including Britain, Mediterranean region, Macaronesia." [PFAF]

Origin Status: Exotic.

Hazards
In large quantities this plant, especially in the form of the extracted essential oil, can cause abortions so it should not be used by pregnant women[165]. Avoid if patient has fits or seizures and those with liver or kidney disease. oral intake may cause abdominal cramps, fever, nausea, vomiting, confusion, delirium, auditory & visual hallucinations [301].
Pulegone may deplete glutathione stores in the liver; a yellow oil; hepatotoxicity has occurred after drinking teas from the herb; should not be taken internally; postmortem pulegone and menthofuran levels in a fatality were 18 ng/mL and 1 ng/mL respectively; a menthofuran level of 40 ng/mL obtained 10 hours postingestion associated with mild toxicity
Toxicity results from the ingestion of pennyroyal oil as an abortifacient and as an infusion for the treatment of colic in children. The ingestion of pennyroyal oil produces direct toxic effects on the GI tract and the liver. Depending on the dose, the clinical presentation includes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, burning of the throat, and dizziness within 2 hours of ingestion followed by the delayed development of liver dysfunction in serious cases. In severe cases, lethargy, shock, consumptive coagulopathy (disseminated intravascular coagulation [DIC]), massive hepatic necrosis, and hepatorenal failure occur.16,24 Multiple grand mal seizures and hypoglycemia occur rarely during pennyroyal intoxication.25 Minor ingestions of pennyroyal oil are associated with GI distress and nonspecific symptoms (lightheadedness, generalized weakness). A rare case reports associated topical application of pennyroyal leaves with the development of contact dermatitis (erythema, vesiculation, edema, desquamation).26 The patient had a positive direct patch test with pennyroyal leaves along with a history of atopic dermatitis (e.g., nickel allergy).[TNS]

Edible Uses

• Leaves
• "Leaves - raw or cooked[2, 9, 27]. Used as a flavouring in salads or cooked foods[183]. A spearmint-like flavour, though rather coarser, it is not used very often in Britain[4]. A herb tea is made from the fresh or dried leaves[183]. For drying, it should be harvested as the plant comes into flower[4]." [PFAF]
  

Other Uses
" An essential oil is obtained from the whole plant, used in soap making[46, 61] and as a cleanser for fabrics[169]. A yield of 14kg of oil per hectare is considered good[4]. The plant has a low spreading habit and can be used as a ground cover, though it is somewhat sparse in the winter and can be invaded by the more aggressive weeds[K]. The aromatic leaves are used as an ingredient of pot-pourri[238]." [PFAF]

• Replellent
• Insect repellent "The growing or dried plant repels fleas, ants, moths, mice etc[18, 20, 148, 169, 201, 238]. Rats and mice intensely dislike the smell of mint. The plant was therefore used in homes as a strewing herb and has also been spread in granaries to keep the rodents off the grain[244]. A strong infusion applied to the face will keep gnats away in the summer[245]." [PFAF]
  
• Smoke
• The smoke of burning pennyroyal leaves was used as an insecticide (McIndoo 1924) ^[UAPDS]
  

Medicinal Uses
"Pennyroyal has been used for centuries in herbal medicine. Its main value is as a digestive tonic where it increases the secretion of digestive juices and relieves flatulence and colic[254]. Pennyroyal also powerfully stimulates the uterine muscles and encourages menstruation, thus it should not be prescribed for pregnant women since it can procure abortions, this is especially the case if the essential oil is used[238, 254]. The herb is antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, sedative and stimulant[4, 9, 46, 165]. A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, minor respiratory infections, digestive disorders, menstrual complaints and various minor ailments[222, 238, 254]. It is occasionally used as a treatment for intestinal worms[254]. Externally, an infusion is used to treat itchiness and formication, inflamed skin disorders such as eczema and rheumatic conditions such as gout[254]. The leaves are harvested in the summer as the plant comes into flower and are dried for later use[4]. The essential oil in the leaves is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses[222]." [PFAF]

• Essential Oil
• Oil dose used for above purposes: 0.12-0.6 mL, Fatal dose: 15 mL

Othe Medicinal Uses

Medicinal Parts: The medicinal parts are the essential oil extracted from the fresh plant, the dried aerial parts and the whole plant.
Characteristics: Strongly aromatic
Production: Pennyroyal is the flowering herb of Menma pulegium. The plants are harvested during the flowering season and dried.
ACTIONS AND PHARMACOLOGY
COMPOUNDS
Volatile oil (1-2%): chief constituents D-pulegone (60-90%). menthone (10-20%), isomenthone (2-10%), additionally including among others piperitone, neoisomenthylacetate Tannins: presumably rosmaric acid
Flavonoids: including among others diosmin, hesperidin EFFECTS
Pennyroyal oil (main component pulegone) has an antimicrobial and insecticidal effect. There is no scientific proof of the described effects.
INDICATIONS AND USAGE
Unproven Uses: The drug is used for digestive disorders. liver and gallbladder disorders, amenorrhea, gout, colds and increased micturation; externally, it is used for skin diseases.
PRECAUTIONS AND ADVERSE REACTIONS
General: European Pennyroyal oil is hepatotoxic in effect. Acute poisonings are not to be feared in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages of the foliage drug. Still, because of its hepatotoxicity. it is recommended that the drug not be used.
Pregnancy: In high doses, Pennyroyal has* been reported to cause abortion. Use in pregnancy is not recommended.
OVERDOSAGE
Severely acute poisonings have been observed following administration of 5 gm of the volatile oil. Vomiting, bloodpressure elevation, anesthetic-like paralysis and death through respiratory failure have been reported following larger dosages. Cases of death have been described following misuse of the volatile oil to induce abortion.
DOSAGE
See: PRECAUTIONS AND ADVERSE REACTIONS.
Mode of Administration: Internally as a ground drug, an extract and a tea. The oil is applied topically.
Daily Dosage: The average daily internal dose of the dried drug is 1 to 4 gm, taken 3 times daily. Pennyroyal is prepared as an infusion. Drink one cupful at a time during the course of the day. Extract: 1 to 4 ml, 3 times daily. [PDR]

Cultivation
"Succeeds in most soils and situations so long as the soil is not too dry[200]. Plants are very quickly diminished by dry conditions[4]. Prefers a stiff moist soil that is slightly acid[16, 27, 37, 200]. A sunny position is best for production of essential oils, but plants succeed in partial shade. Pennyroyal is often grown in the herb garden and is also cultivated commercially as a medicinal plant[4, 115]. There are two main forms of this species. One has weak prostrate stems and spreads by rooting where the stems touch the ground, it is only 10cm tall[4]. The other is erect, does not spread so freely and grows about 30cm tall, thus making it easier to harvest[4]. There is also at least one named form, called 'Dwarf' it is only a few centimetres tall[183]. The whole plant a strong spearmint smell. The flowers are very attractive to bees and butterflies[24]. A good companion plant for cabbages and tomatoes[20], helping to repel cabbage root fly and other burrowing insects[201]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]." [PFAF]

Propagation
" Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. Germination is usually fairly quick. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in the summer. Mentha species are very prone to hybridisation and so the seed cannot be relied on to breed true. Even without hybridisation, seedlings will not be uniform and so the content of medicinal oils etc will vary. When growing plants with a particular aroma it is best to propagate them by division[K]. Division can be easily carried out at almost any time of the year, though it is probably best done in the spring or autumn to allow the plant to establish more quickly. Virtually any part of the root is capable of growing into a new plant. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. However, for maximum increase it is possible to divide the roots up into sections no more than 3cm long and pot these up in light shade in a cold frame. They will quickly become established and can be planted out in the summer." [PFAF]

Synonyms

• Melissa pulegium.
• Mentha albarracinensis.
• Micromeria fenzlii.
• Pulegium heterophyllum.

Mentha suaveolens - Applemint

• Family: Lamiaceae- Mint Family
• Other Names: Round-Leaved Mint, Apple mint, Pineapple Mint

Identification

"Mentha suaveolens is a PERENNIAL growing to 1 m (3ft 3in) by 0.8 m (2ft 7in) at a fast rate."
"It is hardy to zone (UK) 4 and is not frost tender. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.It is noted for attracting wildlife."
"Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil." [PFAF]

General: "Perennial herb from a stolon; stems erect, branched, 50-90 cm tall, densely-soft-hairy, 4-angled; strongly fragrant, apple-scented."
Leaves: "Opposite, egg-shaped, oblong, or broadly elliptic, 1-4 cm long, bases slightly notched, tips generally rounded, margins toothed, hairy and wrinkled above, dense-woolly beneath; unstalked, or nearly so."
Flowers: "Inflorescence of many flower clusters crowded into terminal spikes, subtended by linear or awl-like bracts; flower stalks hairy; corollas tubular, 2-3 mm long, pinkish or white, hairy outside, 4-lobed, the lobes nearly equal; calyces 1-1.5 mm long, short-hairy."
Fruits: "Nutlets, 4 clustered together, egg-shaped."
Habitat / Range
"Moist waste places and ditches in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC; introduced from Europe."
"Damp ground that often dries out in summer, from sea level to 400 metres in Turkey[93]. S. and W. Europe, north to the Netherlands and east into W. Asia." [IFBC-E-flora]

Origin Status: Exotic [E-flora]
Synonyms

• Mentha rotundifolia auct. non (L.) Huds.
• Mentha insularis.
• Mentha macrostachya.

Hazards

"Although no records of toxicity have been seen for this species, large quantities of some members of this genus, especially when taken in the form of the extracted essential oil, can cause abortions so some caution is advised." [PFAF]

Edible Uses

"Apple mint is a favourite general-purpose mint for use in bulk quantities. The leaves and young stems can be used over a very long season – all year round in very mild locations." ^{[Crawford FFFG]} "The crushed stems smell like a combination of ether and peppermint (Morton 1976)." ^{[Small CH]}

• Flowers: "Flowers used to flavour sauces, ice cream, salads, soups, fruit drinks, desserts, dressings and vegetable dish or as garnish." ^[EMNMPV.8]
• Leaves: "The leaves have a delicate apple aroma. The main ingredient of the essential oil is piperitenone oxide, which has a scent of ripe apples (Mansfeld 1986)." ^{[Small CH]}
  • Leaves - raw or cooked as a potherb[50]. Used as a flavouring in salads or cooked foods[183]. The leaves have a similar flavour to spearmint, and are considered to be superior in flavour to that species but are also hairy, which makes them less suitable for garnishing[238]. A herb tea is made from the leaves[183]. "Tender stems with leaves as herbal tea and as a condiment for stews (SP) "The leaves are slightly woolly but this does not detract when they are chopped in recipes." ^{[Crawford FFFG]}
  • "...used Mentha species for flavouring milk and talosopa, a kind of soup made with hot milk and pieces of corn cake. A few leaves were added on the milk while it was boiling. Although most people (12) used cultivated species, wild mints (Mentha suaveolens, 3; M. aquatica, 1) were also used in the preparation." ^{[Menendez-baceta,2012]}
  • Preservation: "The milder mints, such as apple mint, lose too much flavour when dried, so either use fresh or preserve them some other way, e.g. in oil or vinegar." ^{[Crawford FFFG]}
  • Harvesting: "To harvest, pinch off the top 5-10cm (2-4") of soft stem and leaves; you can also strip any decent-looking leaves from further down the stems. Plants will put out new side shoots a few weeks later, which can themselves be harvested after a while. ^{[Crawford FFFG]}

Other Uses

• Essential oil: "An essential oil is obtained from the whole plant. Rats and mice intensely dislike the smell of mint. The plant was therefore used in homes as a strewing herb and has also been spread in granaries to keep the rodents off the grain[244]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Round leafed mint, like many other members of this genus, is often used as a domestic herbal remedy, being valued especially for its antiseptic properties and its beneficial effect on the digestion. Like other members of the genus, it is best not used by pregnant women because large doses can cause an abortion. A tea made from the leaves of most mint species has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, digestive disorders and various minor ailments[222]. The leaves are harvested as the plant comes into flower and can be dried for later use[238]. The essential oil in the leaves is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses[222]." [PFAF]

• Leaves: "As an ingredient of the “St. John’s water” (cold macerate in water of a few species, prepared at St. John’s night, on 24th June)" Used as a Skin toner and for perfuming (ritual). ^{[Gertsch, 2004]}

Cultivation
"A very easily grown plant, it succeeds in most soils and situations so long as the soil is not too dry[1, 200]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. A sunny position is best for production of essential oils, but plants also succeed in partial shade. Often cultivated as a pot herb[50]. There are some named varieties[200]. The flowers have a sickly sweet smell[50]. A very invasive plant, spreading freely at the roots[200]. Unless you have the space to let it roam, it needs to be restrained by some means such as planting it in a container that is buried in the soil[K]. It is said to be a good companion for cabbages and tomatoes, its aromatic leaves repelling insect pests, though its aggressive root system also needs to be taken into account here. The whole plant has a mint-like aroma. The flowers are very attractive to bees and butterflies. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer[233]. Hybridizes freely with other members of this genus." [PFAF]

Copper Accumulation: "Pratas et al. (2013) reported Cu accumulation in Digitalis purpurea (39 mg kg−1), Phytolacca americana (30 mg kg−1), and Mentha suaveolens (28 mg kg−1) from an abandoned Pb mine in Central Portugal." ^[Phytorem1]

Propagation
"Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. Germination is usually fairly quick. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in the summer. Mentha species are very prone to hybridisation and so the seed cannot be relied on to breed true. Even without hybridisation, seedlings will not be uniform and so the content of medicinal oils etc will vary. When growing plants with a particular aroma it is best to propagate them by division[K]. Division can be easily carried out at almost any time of the year, though it is probably best done in the spring or autumn to allow the plant to establish more quickly. Virtually any part of the root is capable of growing into a new plant. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. However, for maximum increase it is possible to divide the roots up into sections no more than 3cm long and pot these up in light shade in a cold frame. They will quickly become established and can be planted out in the summer." [PFAF]

Mentha Sp. - Mint

"Mentha (mint) is a genus of about 25 species (and many hundreds of varieties) of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae (mint family).42" ^{[Aggarwal MTTUS]}

• Flavouring: Mentha Sp; "Mint leaves are used in teas, beverages, jellies, syrups, candies, and ice creams. In Middle Eastern cuisine mint is used in lamb dishes. In British cuisine, mint sauce is popular with lamb. Mint is a necessary ingredient in Touareg tea, a popular tea in northern African and Arab countries." ^{[Aggarwal MTTUS]}
• Medicinal Use: Mentha Sp; "The plant is commonly used as a herbal agent in the treatment of loss of appetite, common cold, bronchitis, sinusitis, fever, nausea and vomiting, and indigestion...44" ^{[Aggarwal MTTUS]}

References

1. http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=9461, Accessed March 26, 2015
2. [Ellis&Stevenson] Domestic Production of the Essential Oils of Peppermint and Spearmint, N. K. ELLIS A~D E. C. STEVENSON Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
3. http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Mentha%20aquatica&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 12/9/2014]
   
4. http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Mentha+aquatica Accessed Dec 9, 2014
5. http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Mentha%20pulegium&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 12/9/2014]
6. http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Mentha+pulegium Accessed Dec 9, 2014
7. E-flora - http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Mentha%20suaveolens&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 12/9/2014]
8. Gertsch, 2004 - Phyllanthus piscatorum, ethnopharmacological studies on a women’s medicinal plant of the Yanomam¨ ı Amerindians, Jürg Gertsch, Niomawë, Kathrin Gertsch-Roost, Otto Sticher, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 91 (2004) 181–188
9. Menendez-baceta,2012 - Wild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay, Basque Country), Gorka Menendez-Baceta, Laura Aceituno-Mata, Javier Tardıo, Victoria Reyes-Garcia, Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana, Genet Resour Crop Evol (2012) 59:1329–1347, DOI 10.1007/s10722-011-9760-z
10. PFAF http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Mentha+suaveolens Accessed Dec 9, 2014
11. Tardio,2006 - Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain, JAVIER TARDÍO, MANUEL PARDO-DE-SANTAYANA and RAMÓN MORALES, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 152, 27–71.