Amaranthus Sp. - Pigweed

Family: Amaranthaceae - Amaranth ^[E-flora]

Google Gemini - Summaries created with AI prompting and may require extra scrutiny

Annual (short-lived perennial herb); monoecious or dioecious. ^[Jepson]

• Stem: prostrate to erect, branched or not.
• Leaf: alternate, petioled, ovate to linear, tip often ± notched (2-lobed), midvein ending in sharp point, margin entire, flat or wavy.
• Inflorescence: 3-flowered cymes, in dense axillary clusters, or large, terminal, panicle- or spike-like inflorescence; bract 1, bractlets 0–2, alike, persistent, spine-like to ± leaf-like or ± membranous, at least margins scarious-membranous.
• Flower: unisexual.
• Staminate flower: perianth parts (2)3–5, scarious; stamens (1)2–5, filaments free; pseudostaminodes 0; anthers 4-chambered.
• Pistillate flower: perianth parts (1)3–5, membranous or scarious, free, persistent; ovary ovoid, style 0, stigmas 2–3, persistent, slender, papillate; ovule 1, erect.
• Fruit: circumscissile or indehiscent, ovoid to obovoid, smooth or ± wrinkled, tip ± gradually (abruptly) narrowed to stigmas or beak; walls thin, membranous.
• Seed: 1, lenticular to ± spheric, round to obovate, smooth, shiny, occasionally obscure-dotted or -net-like, ± white-ivory to brown-red or black. ^[Jepson]
  

"+/- 70 species: worldwide; weeds, ornamentals, food plants. (Greek: unfading, non-withering) [Costea et al. 2001 Sida 19:931–974, 975–992; Sauer 1967 Ann Missouri Bot Gard 54:103–137] Hybrids common, F1 generally with numerous, densely packed bractlets beneath generally sterile pistillate flowers, abnormal-shaped inflorescence with dense, twisted or fan-shaped branches. Unless otherwise noted, descriptions of bracts and flower parts are of pistillate flowers.
Unabridged references: [Sauer 1955 Madroño 13:5–46]

Unabridged note: F1 hybrids have been observed in natural conditions or have been experimentally obtained between any of the following species: Amaranthus hybridus, Amaranthus powellii, Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus tuberculatus, Amaranthus palmeri, Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus, Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus blitoides, Amaranthus albus. Amaranthus caudatus L., Amaranthus cruentus L., Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. frequently cultivated as ornamentals, occasionally escaping from cultivation. Amaranthus spinosus L. probably not naturalized, uncommon waif." ^[Jepson]

"Amaranthus belonging to the family Amaranthaceae comprises a series of wild, weedy, cultivated species and found worldwide in almost all agricultural environments. Amaranth is a very ancient crop. Its presence in Mexico dates from 4000 B.C. in Tehuacan, Puebla (Teutonico and Knorr 1985), and thus it is one of the oldest known plants. Amaranthus species have different centers of domestication and origin, being widely distributed in North America, Central America, and the South American Andes, India, and Nepal where the greatest genetic diversity is found (Sun et al. 1999; Xu and Sun 2001; Zheleznov et al. 1997). It is estimated that there are 87 species of Amaranthus: 17 in Europe, 14 in Australia and 56 in America (Mujica and Jacobsen 2003). Three species of the genus Amaranthus produce edible seeds: Amaranthus hypochondriacus, grown in Mexico; Amaranthus cruentus, grown in Guatemala and Mexico; and Amaranthus caudatus, grown in Peru. This grain was an important nutrient for the Aztec, Maya and Inca. Due to its high-quality protein, especially its relatively high Lys content (Downton 1973) and the presence of sulfur amino acids (Segura-Nieto et al. 1992), this crop has received considerable attention as a supplement to cereals and legumes to prevent protein malnutrition and is known as pseudocereal (Barba de la Rosa et al. 1992; Zheleznov et al. 1997; Gorinstein et al. 2001)." ^[Phytorem2]

"The genus Amaranthus consists of approximately 60 species out of which about 18 are occurring in India. Of these, only seven are in cultivation, while others grow as escapes near human habitats/ cultivated field and in waste lands. Most of the species have 2n = 32 or 34, while the polyploid species A. dubius has 2n = 64 but all are collectively called amaranths. The four suggested grain amaranth regions in the New World are: 1) the Mexican centre which is dominated by A. hypochondriacus; 2) Guatemala with its dominant crop of A. cruentus; 3) the Andes with A. caudatus and 4) Argentina with A. edulis (Gautam, et al., 1999). Subsequent analysis revealed that A. edulis was in fact a variety of A. caudatus thus, the two regions, Andes and Argentina could be considered as one centre. A. caudatus may have been domesticated from an early introduction of A. cruentus which subsequently crossed with wild Amaranthus species (Sauer, 1993). Isozyme and RAPD marker studies suggested that A. hybridus is a common ancestor to all cultivated grain amaranth species (Chan and Sun, 1997). The archeological evidence from Mexico shows that A. cruentus preceded A. hypochondriacus.
Grain amaranth is cultivated as a minor crop in many countries of the world. In India, amaranth grain has a very high place.... Grain amaranth is widely grown in the mountainous regions as well as in the plains.... Amaranths are well adapted to both temperate and tropical conditions. However, its cultivation in the high altitude Himalayan region beyond 1500 m is widespread and extends up to an altitude of 3000 m." ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Local Species;

1. Amaranthus albus - Tumbleweed ^[E-flora]
2. Amaranthus blitoides - Prostrate Pigweed ^[E-flora]
3. Amaranthus blitum - Purple amaranth ^[E-flora]
4. Amaranthus powellii - Powell's Amaranth ^[E-flora]
5. Amaranthus retroflexus - Rough Pigweed ^[E-flora]

Uses of Amaranthus sp.

Hazards

"No members of this genus are known to be poisonous, but when grown on nitrogen-rich soils they are known to concentrate nitrates in the leaves. This is especially noticeable on land where chemical fertilizers are used. Nitrates are implicated in stomach cancers, blue babies and some other health problems. It is inadvisable, therefore, to eat this plant if it is grown inorganically." ^[PFAF]

Food Use

Amaranthus spp. - edible parts - shoots, Leaves, seeds ^(Kays,2011)

"Amaranthus spp. Pigweed. Both the young leaves and stems of several species have been used as greens, and the mature seeds for meal (6, 10, 16, 39)." ^{(Krochmal&Paur)}

"The seeds of Amaranthus sp. (Amaranth) and Chenopodium quinoa (Quinoa) are edible and used as pseudocereals." ^{[Mroczek, Agnieszka, 2015]} "Three species of Amaranthus are cultivated for their edible seeds: A. hypochondriacus L., A. cruentus L., and A. caudatus L." ^{(Mary Patricia Coons1982)}

"At least fifty tropical countries grow vegetable amaranths, and in quantities that are far from small. Throughout the humid lowlands of Africa and Asia, for instance, these are arguably the most widely eaten boiled greens. During the production season, amaranth leaves provide some African societies with as much as 25 percent of their daily protein. In parts of West Africa the tender young seedlings are pulled up by the roots and sold in town markets by the thousands of tons annually. Other parts of the continent also rely on them to a similar degree. A definitive review of southern Africa’s native foods, for example, clearly lays out their status: “Of all the wild edible plants eaten in southern Africa, few if any are as well known and widely used as amaranths.”1" ^[LCAV2]

Zimbabwe cuisine: "The staple food of the Shona people is the ubiquitous sadza, stiff maize meal porridge, which might serve as breakfast, lunch, or dinner. It is usually eaten with vegetables and relish and less often with meat. Sadza can also be made from ingredients other than maize; pea-porridge (rutenho) is made with beans and black-eyed peas, and nhopi is pumpkin porridge.
The relish that goes with sadza can be made from a variety of vegetables, and can be seasoned with fruits and nuts and enriched with insects. For example, it could be made by boiling wild amaranthus leaves and mixing them with homemade peanut butter." ^[Owomoyela]

Amaranthus spp.; "Several members of this family are grown as important leaf vegetables in tropical Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean area. Amaranthus tricolor, Chinese or vine spinach, is one of the most widely used for its leaves. It seems to have been native to India. The leaves are often sliced and stir fried. Some species of Amaranthus are traditionally grown as pseudo-cereal crops for their seeds especially in Central and South America, for example A. caudatus Inca wheat. A. cuentas is a popular leaf vegetable in most of sub-Saharan Africa and is also grown as a grain." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

Local Species

Amaranthus albus - Tumbleweed

General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect or ascending, several, glabrous to short-hairy, branching basally forming a rounded plant to 1 m tall, tending to break off at the base at maturity and then behaving as a "tumbleweed"." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Habitat / Range: "Dry disturbed areas and waste places in the montane zone; infrequent in S BC; throughout N. America, S. America and the Old World." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]

Synonyms

Amaranthus blitoides - Prostrate Pigweed

General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems prostrate or decumbent, several, glabrous to short-hairy, 30-70 cm tall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Prostrate Amaranth, Amaranthus blitoides, which is found as a weed from Maine to North Dakota, south to New Jersey, Missouri, and Kansas, and is native west of the Rocky Mountains. ^[EWP]

Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]

Seeds

• The seeds are gathered by the Indians and made into meal mixed with that from corn, for cakes or gruel. ^[EWP]

Synonyms

Amaranthus blitum - Purple amaranth

Subtaxa Present in B.C.
Amaranthus blitum ssp. emarginatus ^[E-flora]

Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]

Seeds

Amaranthus blitum L. Tender leaves and stems, stewed (Spring) ^{(Tardio,2006)}

"Seeds are warmed on Tawa and eaten with honey during winter, fried seeds mixed with jaggery to form Laddu (sweets). Chapatis frequent as of grinded seeds during winter rains were very common in past. Boiled and fried leaves and tenders are used as green vegetables" (Chandra et al., 2013) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]}

Included Subspecies

• Amaranthus blitum subsp. emarginatus (Salzm. ex Uline & W.L.Bray) Carretero, Muñoz Garm. & Pedrol ^[WFO]
• Amaranthus blitum subsp. oleraceus (L.) Costea ^[WFO]
• Amaranthus blitum var. pseudogracilis (Thell.) Lambinon ^[WFO]

Synonyms

< figcaption>Amaranthus powellii

Image References

• [1] Bruce Ackley, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [2] Stefan.lefnaer, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [3] Lynk media, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Amaranthus powellii - Powell's Amaranth

Local Subtaxa:

• Amaranthus powellii ssp. bouchonii (Two reports from Vancouver)
• Amaranthus powellii ssp. powellii
  

General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, simple to freely branched, 0.3-2.0 m tall, grooved, often reddish, glabrous to short-hairy or sparsely hairy below the flowers." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Included Subspecies

• Amaranthus powellii subsp. bouchonii (Thell.) Costea & Carretero ^[WFO]

Synonyms

Amaranthus retroflexus - Rough Pigweed

General: "Annual herb; stems 50-100 cm tall, simple to freely branched, long-hairy with dandruff-like scales below the flowers." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Similar Species:

"The redroot amaranth can be easily mistaken for other pigweeds, mostly for the Powell’s amaranth (Amaranthus powellii), which it resembles with its spikelike, elongated inflorescence. What separates them is mostly the conspicuous hairiness of the stems and leaves of the redroot amaranth, as opposed to the scarcely (if at all) hairy Powell’s amaranth. When young or under poor growing conditions, the redroot amaranth might resemble the other two introduced pigweeds, the mat amaranth (Amaranthus blitoides) and white pigweed (Amaranthus albus). In these species, though, the leaves are much smaller and the inflorescences develop in small clusters in the axils of the leaves." ^[E-flora]

"Some of the members of the Goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae) family might be mistaken from a distance for the redroot amaranth, such as lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium album) or French spinach (Atriplex hortensis). However, these plants have smoother and thinner leaves, mostly wavy, all being hairless and powdery. Their inflorescences are not prickly, as in the redroot amaranth, but rather fleshy in the lamb’s quarters or sandwiched between a pair of leafy bracts in the French spinach." ^[E-flora]

"The redroot amaranth might occasionally be mistaken for the red-listed wedgescale saltbush (Atriplex truncata), which can grow in similar habitat conditions, in dry roadsides and waste places. It has wedged and greenish inflorescences, but they develop in the axils of the leaves. This species can be easily differentiated based on the grayish, not grass-green leaves. The whole plant is mealy coated and much more slender than the redroot amaranth." ^[E-flora]

Note Author Anna-Mária Csergo, February 2011. ^[E-flora]

Edible Use

"In North America, leaves of a number of species (of Amaranthus spp.) were consumed, and today the leaves of some of these species, naturalized in many other tropical and subtropical regions, are still an important wild food in eastern Africa. A. retroflexus is important in parts of southern Italy and North Africa." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

"Main dish: Plants such as Amaranthus retroflexus L., F. vulgare, C. intybus and C. arvense are cooked with onion, tomato paste, oil, meat, mushroom, chicken and water. Again as flavorings, spices like peppermint, Thymus sp., black pepper, and red pepper are added." ^[dogan2004]

• Young Leaves: "Young leaves - raw or cooked as a spinach^{2, 5, 62, 85, 159}. A mild flavour, it is often mixed with stronger flavoured leaves¹⁸³. Very rich in iron, it is also a good source of vitamins A and C²⁰¹." ^[PFAF]
• Shoot & Leaf: stew, meal, pie, salad [dogan2004]
• Seeds: "Seed - raw or cooked[2, 46, 61, 85]. Ground into a powder and used as a cereal substitute[5], it can also be sprouted and added to salads. The seed is very small, about 1mm in diameter[266], but easy to harvest and very nutritious. The flavour is greatly improved by roasting the seed before grinding it[183]. It is often added to maize meal[183]. The seed can be cooked whole, and becomes very gelatinous like this, but it is rather difficult to crush all of the small seeds in the mouth and thus some of the seed will pass right through the digestive system without being assimilated[K]." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

Dye: "Yellow and green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]." ^[PFAF]

Fodder: "Like many other species of Amaranthus, this plant may be harmful and even deadly when fed to cattle and pigs in large amounts. However, when supplied in moderation, it is regarded as an exceptionally nutritious fodder." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

• Leaves: "A tea made from the leaves is astringent[222]. It is used in the treatment of profuse menstruation, intestinal bleeding, diarrhoea etc[222, 238, 257]." ^[PFAF] "An infusion has been used to treat hoarseness[257]." ^[PFAF]

Actions

• Diarrhea Krochmal; Dysmenorrhea Krochmal; Enterorrhagia Krochmal; Poison Lewis; Soap Krochmal ^(Duke)

"Plant drugs are a primary source of naturally occurring fertility regulating agents because of their little or less side effects. The plants that have been reported to have antifertility activity are Amaranthus retroflexus,...". ^{(Pathak&Das,2013)}

Pytochemicals

"The second group includes some hevein-like peptides that have 6 cysteine residues, including Ac-AMPs identified from Amaranthus caudatus (53), IWF4 from Beta vulgaris (54), and Ar-AMP from Amaranthus retroflexus seeds (55)." ^{Garcia et al.,2012}

An antimicrobial peptide Ar-AMP from amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) seeds. ^{(rogozhin2012)}

Cultivation

Phytoremediation: Amaranthus retroflexus showed high bioaccumulations factors but showed low biomass compared to other species and thus weak phytoextraction. Pesticide concentration decreased in the rhizosphere soil 11-24% more in treatments with fertilizer compared to treatments without fertilizer.^[OPPPS]

"The perennial herb A. retroflexus is one of the common plants in the polluted areas of Kermanshah Petroleum site and could grow effectively on such soils. It propa- gates by means of seeds and underground gemma. After 6 months bioremediation using plants and their root associated fungal strains, concentrations of petroleum pollution were determined in the soil of controls and contaminated soils. The data showed that concentration of petroleum pollution decreased considerably in the all pots but was constant in control ones .... It also showed that decrease in the experimental pots containing plant together with all fungal strains was more than other groups (up to 80 %). Meanwhile, decrease of petroleum pollution was also considerable in the pots containing plant added Fusarium equiseti and F. reticulatum (up to 74 and 78 %). The data showed that all fungal species were capable to decrease petroleum pollution solitary..., but they were more effective when applied with the plant." ^{[Ozturk PGE]}

"An evaluation of phytoremediation efficiencies under the effects of heavy metals (Pb, Hg, and Cd) in combination with EDTA or ammonium addition were conducted in field experiments with three kind of plants. The tested plants included Amaranthus retroflexus, S. bicolor, and Lolium perenne. The maximum concentration of Pb, Cd, and Hg were detected in the shoots of A. retroflexus, S. bicolor, and L. perenne at high concentrations in pH ¼6.2. To enhance the phytoavailability of Pb, Cd, and Hg, EDTA can be applied as a chelating agent to soil (Nejatzadeh-Barandozi and Gholami-Borujeni, 2014)." ^(sytar2016)

Radionuclides: "Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) was found by Lasat et al. (1998) to accumulate higher levels of ¹³⁷Cs than other species evaluated" ^[PCSW]

"In field trials, redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) plants were able to accumulate over 900 pCi/g, which was well over the goal of 300 pCi/g. In these trials, pigweed showed better performance than B. juncea and Phaseolus acutifolius. Field trials on Cs-137 and Sr-90 contaminated soils are currently under way at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory." ^{[Prasad HMSP]}

Synonyms

Uses and Properties of Other, Non-local Species

Mesoamerican Food Crop

"Amaranths are receiving attention as potential new crops to improve nutrition in the Third World and as potential health food products (U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1975; Marx, 1977). Archeological records show that amaranth seeds have long been used for food and may have been among the earliest New World domesticates (Sauer, 1950, 1967, 1969; Callen, 1967; Smith, 1967; MacNeish, 1967; Hunziker, 1943; Hunziker and Planchuelo, 1971; Watson and Yarnell, 1966; Thellung, 1914)." ^{(Mary Patricia Coons1982)}

"Cultivation of A. caudatus is known from southern Ecuador through Peru and Bolivia into northwestern Argentina. However, cultivation of the pseudocereal is declining throughout the region, and Hunziker (1952) has remarked that A. Mantegazzianus is approaching extinction. Nevertheless, cultivation of A. caudatus persists in Africa and Asia, and its potential for exploitation should be similar to that of the other grain species." ^{(Mary Patricia Coons1982)}

"In Argentina, Hunziker (1952) reported that the common name quinoa de Castilla was applied to A. Mantegazzianus grown as a grain crop in the province of Tucuman.) Quinoa de Castilla is sold in Ecuadorian markets as a medicinal but is not truly a cultivated plant, being essentially an "encouraged weed" (Heiser, pers. comm.). These dark-seeded semidomesticates seem to occur only in Ecuador, although amaranth cultivation is known in only one locality in that country, Cuenca. Their origin and relationship to the pale-seeded, cultivated plants is of interest and relevant to speculations about the origin and domestication of the Andean pseudo- cereal." ^{(Mary Patricia Coons1982)}

"A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus were domesticated in Mesoamerica. Amaranth, known as huautli, was as important as beans and corn to the Aztec civilization of Mexico. The early Spanish conquerors noted that it was used in tortillas made from popped grains, and in a range of drinks. Popped amaranth tamale breads were offered to the fire god Xiuhtecutli in Aztec rituals. A mixture of popped amaranth and the syrup of maguey cactus (Agave cantula) played a key role in a form of communion that honored the gods. Cultivation rapidly declined after the Spanish conquest, perhaps in part because of Christian disapproval of these practices. The domestication and early history of the New World amaranth species is not well documented, but it is likely that cultivation of all three spe- cies dates back at least 4000 years. All three species [including A. caudatus] are increasingly cultivated in south Asia. Many amaranths are gathered or cultivated elsewhere, but as leafy vegetables." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

"Cultivated from time immemorial for food purposes, A. caudatus seeds were a staple food in the diet of the Aztecs, who also consumed the aerial parts as greens. In North America, leaves of a number of species were consumed, and today the leaves of some of these species, naturalized in many other tropical and subtropical regions, are still an important wild food in eastern Africa. A. retroflexus is important in parts of southern Italy and North Africa." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

"A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus were domesticated in Mesoamerica. Amaranth, known as huautli, was as important as beans and corn to the Aztec civilization of Mexico. The early Spanish conquerors noted that it was used in tortillas made from popped grains, and in a range of drinks. Popped amaranth tamale breads were offered to the fire god Xiuhtecutli in Aztec rituals. A mixture of popped amaranth and the syrup of maguey cactus (Agave cantula) played a key role in a form of communion that honored the gods. Cultivation rapidly declined after the Spanish conquest, perhaps in part because of Christian disapproval of these practices. The domestication and early history of the New World amaranth species is not well documented, but it is likely that cultivation of all three species dates back at least 4000 years. All three species are increasingly cultivated in south Asia. Many amaranths are gathered or cultivated elsewhere, but as leafy vegetables." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

"The leaves of various amaranth species have been eaten as leaf vegetables since prehispanic times in Mexico (Sahagdn 1970), and they continue to be an important food resource for many peasant communities. In the Sierra Norte de Puebla, amaranths are used as food, forage and medicine (Martfnez et al. 1995)" ^{(Mapes&Basurto)}

"The "quintoniles" (a term applied collectively to Amaranthus spp. in the area) are widely consumed and are sold in the regional markets. They are greatly esteemed by both the rural and urban people." ^{(Mapes&Basurto)}

"The species and races of amaranth that grow in the Sierra Norte de Puebla are: Amaranthus hybridus ("quintonil"), A. spinosus ("quintonil de burro"; "quintonil de p~ijaro"), A. hypochondriacus race Mixteco ("chichiqulht"), A. cruentus L. races Mexicano ("iztaqudit") and Afri- cano ("chichiquilit")" ^{(Mapes&Basurto)}

"In this agroecosystem, seeds of A. hypochondriacus Mixteco and of A. cruentus Mexicano are broadcast in the plots when the chili pepper seeds are sown. Amaranth seedlings can be gathered within one month. The season for amaranth gathering is from September to March and, as in the case of the milpas, first the seedlings are consumed and later the resprouts cut from large plants." ^{(Mapes&Basurto)}

"On the average the chilares can produce 250 amaranth seedlings per m 2. Two experienced people can gather up to 10 kg of amaranth greens in about three hours which includs the time it took to walk (about one hour) to the plots. A part of the gathering is consumed at home and the remainder is sold in markets." ^{(Mapes&Basurto)}

"In the Sierra Norte de Puebla region amaranth leaves and resprouts are greatly appreciated as foodstuff and are in high demand by both mestizos and Indian groups. Amaranth edible greens are sold in local markets and their prices vary with the season and the type of greens (i.e., resprouts or seedlings). The market supplies come from two main agroecosystems: the milpas of the tierra fria and the chilares of the Tierra Caliente. The amaranths from the chilares have higher prices because fewer plants are harvested; the area cultivated in chile peppers is less than that of maize. In general, amaranths are sold by the bunch which costs 50 cents (Mexican currency). The quantity of each bundle varies considerably. A handful of seedlings weighs 13.2 g (dry weight) while a large bundle of resprouts from pruned stems weighs 43.9 g (dry weight)." ^{(Mapes&Basurto)}

"Plants recognized for their edible leaves included indigenous and intro- duced herbs, shrubs, trees and vines. The most recognized herbaceous species in descending order were Bidens pilosa, Bidens bipinnata, Corchorus spp., Alternan- thera sessilis, Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus hybridus, all known by at least 93 % of Swazi adults and 95 % of Swazi school children...". ^(ogle1985)

Non-Local Species

Amaranthus caudatus

"The native range of this species is Ecuador to NW. Argentina. It is an annual and grows primarily in the subtropical biome. It is has environmental uses and social uses, as animal food and a medicine and for food." ^[PWO]

Edible Use

"Inca wheat, Amaranthus caudatus, was domesticated in the high Andes and is still cultivated by the Quechua Indians sparsely, but over a wide region. It is mainly intercropped with corn or quinoa. The seeds are usually roasted or popped, and are often consumed as balls mixed with molasses." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

A. caudatus L. - Whole plant - The tender plant is used as vegetable (Mir, 2014; Rana et al., 2012) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]} "A. caudatus seeds were a staple food in the diet of the Aztecs, who also consumed the aerial parts as greens.... The seeds are usually roasted or popped, and are often consumed as balls mixed with molasses." ^{[Prance TCHP]} "The leaves have an exceptional protein quality, (25 percent for Amaranthus cruentus) reportedly containing more lysine (about 0.8 percent for A. cruentus)] than quality-protein maize (high-lysine corn) and more methionine than soybean meal. In addition, vitamins A and C occur in good quantities. Minerals such as calcium and iron are also present in abundance." ^[LCAV2]

Amaranthus cruentus

"The native range of this species is Central Mexico to Nicaragua. It is an annual and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome. It is has environmental uses, as animal food and a medicine and for food." ^[PWO]

Edible Use

"Old Andean crops like Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), Kichwa (Amaranthus cau- datus), Tarhui (Lupinus mutabilis) and Maca (Lepidium mey- enii) – now globally used as a supplement – featured most prominently." ^{(Bussmann&Sharon,2006)}

A. paniculatus[Syn. of A. cruentus] L. Seeds, leaves Fried, vegetable (Srivastava, 1988) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]}

A. creuntus L. Shoots, leaves Young shoots and leaves made into vegetable (Tiwari et al., 2010) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]} "A. cuentas is a popu- lar leaf vegetable in most of sub-Saharan Africa and is also grown as a grain." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

Medicinal Use

Amaranthus paniculatus: Leaves - "Diuretic, Blood purifier, piles Soporific, Narcotic, Appetizer" ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Synonyms

Amaranthus paniculatus: "This name is a synonym of Amaranthus cruentus" ^[PWO]

Amaranthus gangeticus

"This name is a synonym of Amaranthus tricolor." ^[PWO]

Medicinal Use

Amaranthus gangeticus - Whole Plant - "Lactagogue, Febrifuge, Eye wash, Galactagogue. Menorrhagia, Diarrhoea, Haemorrhages, Antipyretic, Expectorant emetic Emmenagogue, biliousness" ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Amaranthus hybridus

"The native range of this species is S. Ontario to W. South America. It is an annual and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome. It is used to treat unspecified medicinal disorders, has environmental uses and social uses, as animal food and a medicine and for food." ^[PWO]

Medicinal Use

Amaranthus hybridus L. - Wounds, cuts, dermatosis - Flower, leaf - Burnt for ashes - Local application ^{(Gertsch,2004)}

Amaranthus hybridus "Red Amaranth, or Prince's Feather, Amaranthus hybridus, a weed in waste and cultivated grounds, is found over most of North America. It is cultivated in India for its seeds, which are eaten and used as a potherb in the West Indies. Its seeds are eaten by Indians of the Southwest." ^[EWP] "The amino acid composition of Amaranthus hybridus leaf protein, for example, shows a chemical score of 71, comparable to spinach." ^[LCAV2]

Allelopathy

"Petersen et al. (2001) observed that isothiocyanates (methyl-, phenylethyl-, benzyl-, allyl-, n-propyl-, and n-butyl-) released from tur- nip-rape mulch strongly suppressed the germina- tion of spiny sowthistle, scentless mayweed, smooth pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus L.), barnyard grass, and blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.). Probably these isothiocyanates interact with weed seeds in soil solution and as vapor in soil pores and bring about inhibition (Petersen et al., 2001)." ^(singh2003)

Amaranthus hypochondriacus

"The native range of this species is Central U.S.A. to Mexico. It is an annual and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome. It is used as animal food, a poison and a medicine, has environmental uses and for food." ^[PWO]

Flowers: "On the other hand, recently, four edible flowers from Brazil, including Amaranthus hypochondriacus L., Tropaeolum majus L. (red), T. majus (orange) and Spilanthes oleracea L. were investigated and it was reported that p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid were identified and quantified in these flowers for the first time (Barros et al. 2020)." ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

Amaranthus polygamous

????

Medicinal Use

Amaranthus polygamous: "If blisters are formed during handling of the nut [Semecarpus anacardium], they may be treated with the juice of Amaranthus polygamous, or a paste of Terminalia chebula or sesame seed in butter or milk." ^{[Puri AHLR]}

Amaranthus spinosus

"The native range of this species is Mexico to Tropical America. It is an annual and grows primarily in the subtropical biome. It is has social uses, as animal food, a poison and a medicine and for food." ^[PWO]

Edible Use

Amaranthus spinosus - edible leaves ^(ogle1985)

A. spinosus L. Leaves, shoots Fresh leaves are boiled and cooked as vegetable (Gupta, 1962; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]}

Medicinal Use

Amaranthus spinosus: Root, leaves - "Alexiteric, Digestive, Diuretic, Antipyretic, piles biliousness, Leucorrhoea, Hallucination, blood diseases, Leprosy Bronchitis. Expectorant, Gonorrhoea Eczema." ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Phytochemicals

Amaranthus spinosus - Kaempferol glycosides ^{(Montano,2011)}

Cultivation

"Rizvi et al. (45) proposed that since caffeine exerted differential action on several plant species, it might be a useful selective herbicide. Although it inhibited spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus L. #3 AMASP) with no adverse effect on mung bean [Vigna radiat (L).Wilczek], the concentrations required were ex- tremely high. Since Waller et al. (57) showed that caffeine persists, adding massive amounts for weed control on crop land would not appear to be a wise strategy." ^{(Putname,1988)}

Allelopathy

"The allelopathic activity of wheat residues has also been reported under green house and field conditions (Banks and Robinson, 1980; Thilsted and Murray, 1980; Muminovic, 1991). Under field conditions, wheat straw mulch was found to suppress weeds like redroot pig- weed, spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus L.), and tall morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea [L.] Roth.) equivalent to the treatment of herbicide in non-mulched plots (Thilsted and Murray, 1980; Banks and Robinson, 1980)." ^(singh2003)

Amaranthus thunbergii

Edible Use

Amaranthus thunbergii - edible leaves - Only recognized by 27% of surveyed adults, compared to >90% for A. spinosus, A. caudatus and A. hybridus. ^(ogle1985)

"Leaves. Recognition of edible leaves merits special attention at the regional level. Regional specificity is indicated for eight wild plants: Amaranthus thunbergii, Annesorhiza flagellifolia, A. macrocarpa, Laportea pedumentaris, Ophioglossum engelmannii, Peucedanum magaliesmontanum, Sparmannia ricinocarpa and an unidentified Zantedeschia sp. (umdzebedzebe). While each was recognized by 60 % of adults in at least one ecological zone, they were virtually unknown in other ecological zones of Swaziland." ^(ogle1985)

Amaranthus tricolor - Chinese Spinach

"The native range of this species is Tropical Asia. It is an annual and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome. It is used as a poison and a medicine, has environmental uses and social uses and for food." ^[PWO]

Edible Use

A. tricolor L. Leaves Used as vegetable (Srivastava, 1988) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]} "Several members of this family are grown as important leaf vegetables in tropical Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean area. Amaranthus tricolor, Chinese or vine spinach, is one of the most widely used for its leaves. It seems to have been native to India. The leaves are often sliced and stir fried." ^{[Prance TCHP]} "In China and Southeast Asia, a region renowned for quality vegetables, one amaranth—Chinese spinach, Amaranthus tricolor—ranks among the very best. Farmers in Hong Kong, for example, grow at least six types: pointed leaved, round leaved, red leaved, white leaved, green leaved, and horse’s teeth. Those in Taiwan grow a type called tiger leaf, which has green leaves with a red stripe down the center.6 They’re not only very pretty, they’re very tasty." ^[LCAV2]

Activities

A. tricolor - 40, 60, 80, and 100 ug/ml - Galactosyl diacyl glycerols - AGS, SF-268, HCT-116, NCI- H460, MCF-7 cell lines - lowers COX (Jayaprakasam, Zhang, and Nair 2004) ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

Effects of seaweed extracts on flower and ornamental crops, and turf grasses

Amaranthus tricolor - Seaweed extract: A. nodosum extract - "Increased stalk length of inflorescences, length and number of inflorescences, fresh and dry weight of inflorescences under salt stress" ^{(battacharyya2015)}

Amaranthus viridis

"The native range of this species is SE. Mexico to Tropical America. It is an annual and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome. It is used as animal food and a medicine and for food." ^[PWO]

Edible Use

A. viridis L. Shoots, leaves Young shoots and leaves cooked as vegetable (Chandra et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014) ^{[Pullaiah EOI]}

Medicinal Use

Amaranthus viridis: Leaves - Laxative ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Amaranthus viridis L., A. tricolor L., A. lividus L., A. blitum L. - Leaves, shoots - Blood enhancer, good eye health ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Image References

• [1] Francisco Manuel Blanco (O.S.A.), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
• [2] Agnieszka Kwiecień, Nova, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [3] Aris riyanto, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image References

• [1] See page for author, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [2] Harry Rose from South West Rocks, Australia, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [3] SAplants, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Phytochemicals

"Analysis of foliage of 61 accessions of Amaranthus species comprising both grain and vegetable types, revealed a high degree of variation for leaf protein (14-43 g/kg), carotenoid (60-200 mg/kg), nitrate (1.8-9.2 g/kg) and oxalate (3.0-19.2 g/kg)." ^{[Peter BUHC]}

Amaranthus sp. - Amaranthaceae

Phytochemicals

"Phytochemicals isolated from genus Amaranthus with > 60 species have shown anticancer (Al-Mamun et al. 2016), anti- oxidant (Delgado et al. 2015), immunomodulatory (Moronta et al. 2016), and anti-inflammatory activities as well as other health effects based on in vivo and in vitro reports (Nonn, Duong, and Peehl 2007; Y. Tang and Tsao 2017). Recent reports have shown that the plant compounds of amaranth flower play an effective role in direct scavenging of free radi- cals, activation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxi- dants, as well as the Nrf2-Keap1/, ARE signaling pathway (Park, Sharma, and Lee 2020). The potential antioxidant and anticancer activities of Amaranthus extracts have been attributed to the presence of significant amounts of flavo- noids and phenolics as well as lectins. Lectins are glycopro- teins mainly found in plants, which have the capacity to bind carbohydrates (Jeyaprakash et al. 2005; Kraujalis et al. 2013). House et al. evaluated the antioxidant properties of A. dubius Mart. ex Thell., A. spinosus L., A. tricolor L. and A. viridis L. methanolic extracts by H2O2, DPPH, and ferric reducing capacity assay. A. dubius showed the highest value for ferric-reducing antioxidant capacity and H2O2-scaveng- ing activity. A. spinosus showed the best free-radical scav- enging activity against DPPH with an IC50 of 63.94 ± 3.72 mg/mL. The highest flavonoids and phenolic acids content of A. dubius confirmed its high antioxidant capacity. Among others, A. dubius and A. spinosus showed also the better anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory activ- ities (House et al. 2020). Another study on Amaranthus spe- cies showed that different concentrations of extracts from A. tricolor and A. lividus could decrease ROS intracellular pro- duction by regulating the expression of oxidative stress genes such as NF-jB, heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), and recep- tor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) in human neuroblastoma cell line, SH-SY5Y (Amornrit and Santiyanont 2016). Galactosyl diacylglycerols derived from A. tricolor suppressed anti-inflammatory effect by decreasing COX enzyme activity in some cancer cell lines with the fol- lowing IC50 values: 0.44, 0.31, 0.23, 1.13, and 0.16 mg/mL for lung, breast, colon, CNS and gastric tumor cell lines, respectively (Jayaprakasam, Zhang, and Nair 2004). Besides, 25 and 60 mmol/L of fatty acid and linoleic acid, isolated from A. spinosus induced apoptosis mediated by downregu- lation of Bcl-2 and up-regulation of Bax, leading to the G/M transition arrest against HepG2 human liver cancer cells (Mondal et al. 2016)." ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

"Tannins of A. caudatus L. inhibited superoxide radical in a human promyelocytic leukemia cell line and NO levels in RAW 264.7 cells. Besides, the SOD expression was increased in A. caudatus-treated RAW 264.7 cells (Jo et al. 2015). Results of in vitro/in vivo study showed that aqueous extract of A. gangeticus L. suppressed the proliferation of HepG2 and MCF-7 cells, with IC50 values of 93.8 mg/mL and 98.8 mg/mL, respectively. Supplementation with this extract to cancer-induced rats inhibited the activity of tumor marker enzymes (Sani et al. 2004). Peptides from A. mante- gazzianus Passer. exerted a potential antiproliferative activity against HT-29 colon cancer cells (Sabbione et al. 2019). Lee et al. evaluated the antioxidative activity of A. cruentus L. extract on rectal cancer cells via ABTS (2,20-azino-bis(3-eth- ylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) and DPPH assays. They revealed that this extract has antioxidant activity and inhibi- tory effect on CT-26 cell proliferation (Lee and Joo 2018). In ascites tumor models of mice, oral administration of 100, 200, 500 and 750 mg/kg of A. paniculatus L. extract, with high phenolic (25.23 mg/g) and flavonoid (11.60 mg/g) con- tent, caused an enhancement in antioxidant potential by increasing the CAT, SOD, GSH and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels (Sreelatha, Dinesh, and Uma 2012). Moreover, A. paniculatus showed radiorpotec- tive effects on mice exposed to whole-body gamma radiation via GSH level increase and lipid peroxidation (LPO) decrease (Krishna and Kumar 2005). A concentration- dependent increase in Nrf2/ARE-mediated gene expression and in the ROS formation decrese, was demonstrated in HepG2 cell line treated with ethanolic extracts from A. cruentus L. (Odongo et al. 2018). Alkaloids from A. viridis L. modified the H2O2-induced oxidative stress in human erythrocytes. SOD, CAT, GST and GSH levels were increased in a dose-dependent manner, while the LPO level was decreased (Sasikumar et al. 2015)." ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

"In general, flavonoids, phenolic compounds and lectins typical of Amaranthus species have revealed strong antioxi- dant and anticancer effects." ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

"Sugars in Amaranthaceae saponins are linked to the aglycone at the C-3 or/and C-28, but C-23 glycosides can be also encountered. Most of the Amaranthaceae saponins possess bisdesmosidic structure and so far only one tridesmosidic saponin was isolated from Amaranthus caudatus (Rastrelli et al. 1995)." ^{[Mroczek, Agnieszka, 2015]}

"Differences, although subtle, could be observed also in Amaranthus genus. Saponins from A. hypochondriacus (Kohda et al. 1991), A. caudatus (Rastrelli et al. 1995) and A. cruentus (Oleszek et al. 1999) possess common structural features.... However, they differ in the oxidation pattern at C-23 and C-6 aswell as in the composition of the oligosaccharide chain at C-3. Aglycones with the –CH3, –CH2OH or –CHO group at C-23 were described in A. hypochondriacus (Kohda et al. 1991), whereas aglycones with a –COOH group present atC-23 and a –OH group at C-6 were found in A. caudatus (Rastrelli et al. 1995) and in A. cruentus (Oleszek et al. 1999). Although saponins from a particular genera posses similar pattern, some differences can be observed between the plants from the same genus. Thus, studies on Amaranthaceae phytochemicals have revealed that the chemical composition of saponins can vary regardless of the very close systematic relationship." ^{[Mroczek, Agnieszka, 2015]}

"Foods that contain significant concentrations of oxalic acid, such as .... Leaves, tubers, and green of Amaranthus gangeticus, Amaranthus spinosa,..." ^{[PSM Harmana]}

"Betalains from Amaranthaceae plants used in traditional Chinese medicine like Amaranthus sp. and Celosia sp. were tested for their feasibility to colour food (Cai et al., 1998; Cai, Sun, Schliemann, & Corke, 2001b), but yet are used only locally. Additionally, high saponin contents in Amaranthus sp. (Oleszek et al., 1999) and dopamine concentrations in Celosia sp. (Schliemann, Cai, Degenkolb, Schmidt, & Corke, 2001) might restrict their potential in global commercialization." ^{(stintzing2004)}

Cultivation

Amaranthus spp.;
"Days to Maturity: 40 to 50
When to Plant: plant seeds outdoors when soil is warm, or start plants early indoors in pots.
How to Plant: cover seeds with no more than /4 inch of soil. Thin to 8 to 10 inches apart in rows 12 to 15 inches apart. Use the thinnings as your first crop.
Growing Conditions: requires full sun, hot weather.
Remarks: flavor is best before flowering.
Grain Amaranth: this is a native American plant that was used a ceremonial food by the Aztecs. It stands 4 to 7 feet tall, with heavy plumes of small protein-rich seeds.
Days to Maturity: 90 to 110" ^{[NSSH Bubel]}

"Autoinhibition has long been suggested as a mechanism to explain declining yields in agricultural fields planted with the same crop species over many years [60]. Whereas autoinhibition in agricultural crops has often been attributed to phytotoxins in decomposing leaf and stem tissue [60], some phytotoxins responsible for autotoxicity are also released in crop root exudates.... Autoinhibition may also play a role in natural plant communities, particularly among weedy species. Indeed, several invasive plants reported to be allelopathic are also autoinhibitory, including Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. [64,65]...." ^{[Pinton TR]}

"In field trials in North Carolina in 1990-91, Amaranthus retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. hybridus and Chenopodium album were controlled 80-100% up to 4 weeks after sowing into killed cover crops of Secale cereale [rye] and Trifolium subterraneum without the use of herbicides. T. incarnatum and Vicia villosa gave less control. Only S. cereale suppressed Brachiaria platyphylla. Amaranthus spp. control increased with increased soil pH and total phenolic acid content under the various mulches." ^{(Worsham & Blum,1992)}

Hyperaccumulator: "Hyperaccumulatory activity of various Amaranthus sp. has been investigated by various researchers. More researches have been carried out on the weed Amaranthus and it has been concluded that in a test of phytoextraction, the scientists found a crop ( Amaranthus hypochondriacus) which not only grows rapidly but also accumulates high levels of Cd metal (Li et al. 2009 ). When intercropped with maize, A. hypochondriacus accumulated over 50 mg/kg Cd in shoots and over 90 mg/kg Cd in roots from soil containing 3 mg/kg Cd. Amaranthus hypochondriacus has been widely used as forage for cattle. It grows very fast with a very high biomass, having an average biomass yield of 10–15 t h/m 2 (DW). In another experiment of monoculture, A. hypochondriacus accumulated more than 100 mg/kg Cd from soil containing 5 mg/kg Cd. Since this plant has long been used as forage species, the cultivation systems of the crop are well established and highly mechanized. It has great potential to efficiently extract Cd from contaminated soils. Amaranthus has been cultivated for a long time on a large scale in China, producing a good quality of forage." ^[Phytorem2]

"The hyperaccumulating capabilities of Amaranthus species are quite noticeable for Ni and Cd metals. The role of NPK fertilizer addition has also been positive on the removal capabilities." ^[Phytorem2]

Translocation of Organic Pollutants: "For pesticides based on carbamates acropetal translocation is typical. Examples are carbofuran in seedlings of soybean and mung bean (Vigna radiata) (Talekar et al. 1977), methyl-2-benzimidazole carbamate in seedlings of peanut (Vias et al. 1976; Prasad and Ellis 1978) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) (Mathur and Jhamaria 1975). The pesticides phenmedipham and desmedipham, penetrating through the leaves of wild mustard (Brassica kaber), Amaranthus and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), were translocated only acropetally (Hendrick et al. 1974). It was found that plant resistance to pollutants depends on their translocation direction. For instance, the herbicide buthidazole, uptaken by leaves of sensitive to this herbicide plant Amaranthus, is translocated in both directions acropetally and basipetally, but in resistant maize leaves transport proceeds only basipetally (Hatzios and Penner 1980). This herbicide is insignificantly translocated along the apoplast in soybean leaves (Haderlie 1980). 4,4′-methylene-bis(2-chloroaniline) applied to different plant leaves is absorbed but not translocated." ^{[Ozturk PPT]}

Radionuclides: "⁹⁰Sr is relatively easily taken up by plants, but its availability may be inhibited by the application of Ca, Mg, K, and Na to soils. ... Amaranthus species are reported to be effective in phytoextraction of this nuclide from soils in the Chernobyl exclusion zone.1283" ^{[Pendias SP]}

potential for phytoextraction (natural and induced both): Uranium - Brassicaceae - "B. chinensis, B. juncea, B. narinosa, Amaranthus species" ^{(sheoran2010)}

Mycorrhizal information

Plant Breeding

"It seems that sterility barriers may arise rather easily among grain amaranths. Cultivation of A. caudatus as an ornamental in Europe and North America is definitely post-Columbian, introduction of these plants into European gardens dating from the 16th century (Saner, 1967). Hybrids between Love-Lies-Bleeding and a Peruvian grain plant showed obviously reduced fertility, and hybrids between 2 ornamentals, Love-Lies-Bleeding and Green-Tassel, were infertile. Further, 2 collections from the same locality in Peru produced abnormal, sterile progeny. It is possible that even when grain amaranth cultivation was at its peak in pre-Columbian times, the distribution of the crop was patchy, facilitating the genetic differentiation of local races." ^{(Mary Patricia Coons1982)}

Allelopathy

Misc Notes

The gene "AtuGSTF2 was possibly involved in resistance of Amaranthus tuberculatus to atrazine (Evans et al., 2017)." ^{(Jing Jing Zhang & Hong Yang, 2021)}

A. paniculatus - 100, 200, 500 and 750 mg/kg p.o. - Phenolic and flavonoid content - Ascites cancer in mice - increases SOD, CAT decreases TBARS, GSH - (Sreelatha, Dinesh, and Uma 2012) ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

Amaranthus paniculatus Anti-diabetic activity Ethanolic extract, 100 and 150 mg/kg - Male and female rats ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

A. lividus - 0–1000 lg/mL 24 h - Total extract - SH-SY5Y cell line - lowers ROS, RAGE, HMOX-1, NF-_kB (Amornrit and Santiyanont 2016) ^{(Fakhri et al., 2021)}

Image References

• [1] Kenraiz, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [2] Krzysztof Ziarnek, Kenraiz, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
• [3] Stefan.lefnaer, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

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  • WFO (2024): Amaranthus powellii S.Watson. Published on the Internet;http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000530428. Accessed on: 03 Oct 2024
  • WFO (2024): Amaranthus retroflexus L. Published on the Internet;http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000530447. Accessed on: 03 Oct 2024
• (Worsham & Blum,1992) Worsham, A. D., and U. Blum. "Allelopathic cover crops to reduce herbicide inputs in cropping systems." (1992): 577-579.

Journals of Interest

• Showkat, S.; Laila, O.; Murtaza, I. Antioxidant and Anti-diabetic Potential of Nutraceutical Rich Amaranthus caudatus. Indian J. Pure Appl. Biosci. 2020, 8, 140–148. [CrossRef]
• Al-Mamun, M. A., J. Husna, M. Khatun, R. Hasan, M. Kamruzzaman, K. Hoque, M. A. Reza, and Z. Ferdousi. 2016. Assessment of anti-oxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial activity of two vegetable species of Amaranthus in Bangladesh. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 16:157. doi: 10.1186/s12906-016-1130-0.
• Amornrit, W., and R. Santiyanont. 2016. Neuroprotective effect of Amaranthus lividus and Amaranthus tricolor and their effects on gene expression of RAGE during oxidative stress in SH-SY5Y cells. Gen. Mol. Res 15:15027562.
• Cai, Y., Sun, M., & Corke, H. (1998). Colorant properties and stability of Amaranthus pigments. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 4491–4495.
• EINHELLIG, F.A., and RASMUSSEN,J.A. 1973. Allelopathic effects of Rumex crispus, Amaranthus retroflexus, grain sorghum and field corn. Am. Midl. Nat. 90(1):79-86.
• Evans Jr, A.F., O'Brien, S.R., Ma, R., Hager, A.G., Riggins, C.W., Lambert, K.N., Riechers, D.E., 2017. Biochemical characterization of metabolism–based atrazine resistance in Amaranthus tuberculatus and identification of an expressed GST associated with resistance. Plant Biotechnol. J. 15, 1238–1249.
• House, N. C., D. Puthenparampil, D. Malayil, and A. Narayanankutty. 2020. Variation in the polyphenol composition, antioxidant, and anticancer activity among different Amaranthus species. South African Journal of Botany 135:408–12. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2020.09. 026.
• Krishna, A., and A. Kumar. 2005. Evaluation of radioprotective effects of Rajgira (Amaranthus paniculatus) extract in Swiss albino mice. Journal of Radiation Research 46 (2):233–9. doi: 10.1269/jrr.46.233.
• Lipkin A, Anisimova V, Nikonorova A, Babakov A, Krause E, Bienert M, et al.An antimicrobial peptide Ar-AMP from amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) seeds. Phytochemistry 2005;66(20):2426–31.
• Oleszek, W., Junkuszew, M., & Stochmal, A. (1999). Determinationand toxicity of saponins from Amaranthus cruentus seeds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47, 3685–3687.
• Puschenreiter, M., Sto¨ger, G., Lombi, E., Horak, O., Wenzel, W.W., 2001. Phytoextraction of heavy metal contaminated soils with Thlaspi goesingense and Amaranthus hybridus: Rhizosphere manipulation using EDTA and ammonium sulphate. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 164, 615–621.
• Sani, H. A., A. Rahmat, M. Ismail, R. Rosli, and S. Endrini. 2004. Potential anticancer effect of red spinach (Amaranthus gangeticus) extract. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 13(4):396–400.
• Sannders, R. M., and R. Becker. 1984. Amaranthus: a potential food and feed resource. In Y. Pomeranz, ed., Advances in cereal science and technology. Vol. VI. American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minnesota.
• Sreelatha, S., E. Dinesh, and C. Uma. 2012. Antioxidant properties of Rajgira (Amaranthus paniculatus) leaves and potential synergy in chemoprevention. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention 13 (6): 2775–80. doi: 10.7314/APJCP.2012.13.6.2775.
• Teutonico, Rita A., and Dietrich Knorr. "Nondestructive method for determination of water-soluble oxalate in cultured Amaranthus tricolor cells." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 33.1 (1985): 60-62.
• Wesche-Ebeling P., R. Maiti, G. Garcia-Diaz, D. I. Gonzfilez, and F. Sosa-Alvarado. 1995. Contri- butions to the botany and nutritional value of some wild Amaranthus species (Amaranthaceae) of Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Economic Botany 49:423-430.
• Wilson-Corral, V. Hiperacumulación de oro inducida químicamente en ocho especies vegetales (Brassica juncea, Brassica campestris, Helianthus annus, Amaranthus spp., Sesamum indicum, Sorghum halepense, Amoreuxia palmatifida y Gossypium hirsutum). Diss. PhD Thesis. Centro de Estudios Justo Sierra (CEJUS), 2008.
• Worsham, A. D. and Blum, U. 1992. Allelopathic covercrops to reduce herbicide inputs in cropping systems. In: Proceedings of First International Weed Control Congress, pp. 577–579. Richardson, R. G., Ed., Weed Science Society of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia.

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