Vinca Sp. - Periwinkles

Family:Apocynaceae (Dogbane) ^[E-flora]

"Perennial herb, ± glabrous (except ciliate leaf, sepal margins). Leaf: opposite to subopposite. Inflorescence: flowers generally 1 in leaf axils. Flower: calyx lobes long, slender; corolla tube funnel-shaped, lobes asymmetric; filaments free, attached near top of corolla tube, sharply bent near base, unappendaged, anthers held around top of but free from stigma, each partly sterile, pollen ± free; nectaries 2, alternate ovaries, wide-spaced, generally not exceeding ovaries; style cylindric, widened distally, stigma skirted at base. Seed: glabrous.
6–7 species: southern Europe, northern Africa, to Afghanistan. (Latin: possibly, to bind or wind about)
Unabridged references: [Taylor & Farnsworth 1973 The Vinca alkaloids]
Unabridged note: 2n=46 in Vinca minor, Homo sapiens, and Lepus europaeus (and other hares), not suggesting a close relationship among these taxa, yet supporting the idea that classification should be based on more than one kind of evidence." ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Vinca major - large periwinkle ^[E-flora]
2. Vinca minor - common periwinkle ^[E-flora]

Key to the Species and Taxonomic Notes

• 1. Flowers usually 20-30 mm wide, usually solitary; calyx lobes glabrous; leaves narrowed at the base............V. minor
• 1. Flowers usually 30-50 mm wide, up to 4 per stem; calyx lobes ciliate; leaves squared-off or somewhat heart-shaped at the base............. V. major ^[E-flora]

Common Periwinkle - Vinca minor

• Origin Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]
• General: "Trailing perennial herb, freely rooting; stems spreading, 10-60 cm long, branching." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Habitat / Range: "Roadsides and waste places in the lowland zone; infrequent in SW BC, known from SE Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands and lower mainland; introduced from Eurasia." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Additional Notes "This species is listed are one of the twelve most problematics species in the Vancouver Region by the Greater Vancouver Invasive Plant Council. ^[E-flora]

"Common periwinkle (V. minor) is similar but has smaller leaves (less than 5 cm long) and smaller flowers (2.5 cm or less across) than V. major, and is more cold hardy and more tolerant of shade. It is used for producing Catharanthus alkaloids. Also, a homoeopathic tincture is prepared from the fresh leaves of it and is given medicinally for the milk-crust of infants as well as for internal hemorrhages. Its flowers are gently purgative, but lose their effect on drying. If gathered in the spring and made into a syrup, they will impart thereto all their virtues and this is excellent as a gentle laxative for children and also for overcoming chronic constipation in grown-ups (Grieve, 1994)." ^[PTFC]

Large Periwinkle - V. major

• Origin Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]
• General: "Trailing perennial herb, freely rooting; stems spreading, 10-60 cm long, branching." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Habitat / Range: "Roadsides and waste places in the lowland zone; infrequent in SW BC, known from SE Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands; introduced from Europe." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Synonyms
  • Vinca major var. variegata Louden ^[E-flora]

"Vinca major, the greater periwinkle, another European species, is not common outside of gardens. Its corolla is 3.5–5 cm wide, and its calyx lobes (typically with hairy margins) and fruits are also much larger than those of V. minor. Furthermore, its stems tend to grow upright and may rise to a height of more than 1 m." ^{[Kozloff PWO]}

"Vinca major (Apocynaceae family), with common names: large periwinkle, big periwinkle; it is a fast growing herbaceous perennial groundcover with evergreen foliage and pretty blue flowers. It is native to France and Italy, and eastward through the Balkans to northern Asia Minor and the western Caucasus. V. major and V. minor are the most commonly cultivated. Herbalists for curing diabetes have long used it, because it can prove an efficient substitute for insulin. It is used for in herbal practice for its astringent and tonic properties in menorrhagia and in hemorrhages generally. For obstructions of mucus in the intestines and lungs, diarrhea, congestions, hemorrhages, etc., periwinkle tea is a good remedy. In cases of scurvy and for relaxed sore throat and inflamed tonsils, it may also be used as a gargle. For bleeding piles, it may be applied externally. Apparently all the vincas are poisonous if ingested. Numerous alkaloids, some useful to man, have been isolated from big and common periwinkle (Grieve, 1994)." ^[PTFC]

Species Mentioned

"Most authors suggest that the greater [V. major] and lesser periwinkle [V. minor] are generically interchangeable medicinally, and I agree, so far." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Hazards

V. minor & V. major; "Large quantities of the plant are poisonous[19, 65]." ^[PFAF]

Vinca Spp. contraindicated during pregnancy ^{[Hudson WENM][Moore(1995)]}

Vinca minor

• "No health hazards are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages." ^[PDR]
• Overdosage: "Overdosage will bring about a severe drop in blood pressure. Cases of poisonings have not yet been recorded. Treatment includes gastrointestinal emptying (inducement of vomiting, gastric lavage with burgundy-coloured potassium permanganate solution, sodium sulphate), instillation of activated charcoal and shock prophylaxis (appropriate body position, quiet, warmth). The therapy for poisonings consists of treating bradycardia with atropine or Alupent, cardiac arrhythmias with lidocaine or phenytoin and treating possible cases of acidosis with sodium bicarbonate infusions. In case of shock, plasma volume expanders should be infused." ^[PDR]
• "Contraindicated in constipation and hypotension (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports hematological changes (e.g., leucocytopenia, lymphocytopenia, reduced globulin levels) have been observed in animals (AEH). Little cited as allergic or toxic (CRC). PH2 reports skin flushing and GI disturbances. Overdose may seriously lower blood pressure (PH2). LD50 “drug” 1400 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2), LD50 “mixed alkaloids” 76 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2), LD50 “mixed alkaloids” 24 mg/kg ivn mouse (HH2), LD50 “mixed alkaloids” 500 mg/kg orl mouse (HH2)." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Other Uses

• Basketry:
  • V.major and V. minor; "The stems are used in basket making[7]. A very good ground cover for covering steep banks and shady places, spreading rapidly once established and forming a dense cover within 2 years[11, 28, 31, 190, 200]. It is less dense on dry or exposed sites[197]. Plants are best spaced about 60cm apart each way[208]." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Folklore has attributed curative properties to the periwinkle plant. It has been recommended as a remedy for diarrhea and hemorrhages. A tea made from the plant can be used for nervous conditions. It was thought to be a cure for diabetes. Chewing the herb has been recommended to stop toothache or to stop bleeding in the mouth and nose. Another source also reports its use as a laxative, for cramp, and for skin inflammation, and suggests the use of Vinca major as a gargle in cases of scurvy, sore throat and inflamed tonsils." ^[Thame,1989]

• Homeopathic:
  • V.minor & V.major; "A homeopathic remedy is made from the fresh leaves[4]. It is used in the treatment of haemorrhages[4]." ^[PFAF] "Periwinkle is used for weeping eczema and bleeding mucous membranes." ^[PDR]
  • Homeopathic Dosage (V.minor): "5 drops, 1 tablet or 10 globules every 30 to 60 minutes (acute) or 1 to 3 times daily (chronic); parenterally: 1 to 2 ml sc. acute: 3 times daily; chronic: once a day (HAB1)." ^[PDR]
• Flowers:
  • V. minor & V.major; "The fresh flowers are gently purgative, but lose their effect on drying[4]." ^[PFAF]
• Root:
  • V. Minor; "The root is antispasmodic and hypotensive[7, 19]. It is used to lower the blood pressure[19]. The root is gathered in the autumn and dried for later use[7]." ^[PFAF]
• Leaves:
  • V. minor; "The leaves are bitter, detergent and stomachic[7]. Taken internally, they are used in the treatment of internal bleeding, heavy menstrual bleeding and nosebleeds[254]. When crushed and applied to wounds they have astringent and healing properties[7]. A mouthwash is used to treat gingivitis, sore throats and mouth ulcers[254]. The leaves are gathered in the spring and dried for later use[7]." ^[PFAF]
  • V. Minor; "The medicinal parts are the dried leaves, the fresh aerial parts of the flowering plant and the whole fresh flowering plant." ^[PDR]
    • "Periwinkle is used internally for circulatory disorders, cerebral circulatory impairment and support for the metabolism of the brain. It is also used internally for loss of memory, hypertension, cystitis, gastritis and enteritis, diarrhea, raised blood sugar levels and to help weaning." ^[PDR]
    • "Periwinkle is used externally for sore throats, nose bleeds, bruising, abscesses, eczema and to stop bleeding." ^[PDR]
  • Dosages:
    • "Preparation: To make a tea, pour 200 ml boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of drug, steep for 10 minutes, then strain. To make a decoction, boil 60 gm of drug in 1 liter of water for 2 minutes, steep for 10 minutes, then strain. To make an infusion, boil 15 gm of drug in 1/4 liter of water. To make wine, macerate 100 gm of drug in 1 liter of wine for 10 days, decant, then press. To make a liquid for gargling, boil 2 dessertspoonfuls of drug for a few minutes in 1/2 liter water." ^[PDR]
    • V. minor & V.major; "HERB. Tincture [Fresh Herb 1:2, Dry Herb, 1:5, 50% alcohol] 20-40 drops, to 2X a day." ^{[Moore(1995)]}
    • V. minor; "Daily Dosage: The usual drug dosage is as follows: Tea—2 to 3 cups daily; Decoction—2 to 4 cups between meals; Infusion—drink after meals for diarrhea; Wine—1 dessertspoonful after meals; a gargle or wash can be used externally as needed." ^[PDR]

Futher Medicinal Information

Vinca major;
Select Indications (Greater Periwinkle) — Bleeding (1; GMH; WOI); Hemorrhoid (f; HH2; GMH); Menorrhagia (1; HH2; GMH)
"Dosages (Greater Periwinkle) — 2–4 g dry herb/cup tea to 3 ×/day (HH2)."
"Extracts (Greater Periwinkle) — Aqueous extract (1.82 g leaf/50 ml water reduces in vitro (in human serum) cholinesterase activity by 50% (HH2). Mix of vincamine and vincine lower blood pressure IC27–40 = 5–10 mg/kg ivn rat LD50 (mixed alkaloids) = 37 mg/kg ivn mouse (HH2)." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Vinca Major; "Distribution Suburban and rural areas (escaped plant) from Seattle to Los Angeles, usually in the shade. Parts Used Leafing stems. Preparation Fresh Herb Tincture, 1:2, Dry Herb Tincture, 1:5, 50% alcohol, both 20 to 40 drops morning and evening. Herb Uses A hemostatic in functional uterine bleeding, bleeding hemorrhoids; the tincture, mixed with 5 parts glycerine for rectal application. For migrainelike headaches, with pounding in temples, occurring after adrenalin stress from circumstances or a rebound reaction to low blood sugar from skipping meals. Comments An incredibly complex alkaloid plant, its safe use mentioned here is for acute, short-term need. If you get many such headaches that need Periwinkle, it's time to do more than take an herb. References Moore (Desert)." ^{[Moore MPPW]}

Vinca minor; "Dosages (Lesser Periwinkle) — 2–4 g powdered herb (PNC); 200 ml boiling water over 1 tsp herb, 2–3 cups/day (PH2); 15 g herb/250 ml water for infusion (PH2); macerate 100 g herbs in a liter of wine, steep 10 days (PH2); 2.5–5 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–5 g fluid extract (MAD)." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Vinca minor; Select Indications (Lesser Periwinkle) — Alzheimer’s (1; BRU; FNF); Bleeding (f; APA; CRC; HH2; KOM; PH2; WOI); Cancer (1; CRC); Cancer, uvula (f; CRC; JLH); Catarrh (f; CRC; HH2; KOM; MAD); Constipation (f; CRC; GMH); Cramp (1; CRC; GMH; PH2; WOI); Dementia (1; BRU; FNF); Dermatosis (f; BRU; CRC; MAD); Diarrhea (f; CRC; HH2; KOM; MAD; PH2; WBB); Dysentery (f; CRC; WBB); Dysmenorrhea (f; APA; MAD); Eczema (f; CRC; HH2; PH2); Encephalosis (f; PHR); Enterosis (f; APA; HH2; MAD; PH2); Epistaxis (f; CRC; GMH; HH2; PH2); Gastrosis (f; HH2; PH2); Headache (f; APA; CRC); Hemorrhoid (f; CRC; GMH); High Blood Pressure (2; APA; CRC; PH2; WOI); Hyperglycemia (1; HH2; PH2); Hysteria (f; CRC; GMH); Immunodepression (1; APA; HH2); Inflammation (f; APA; GMH; KOM); Insomnia (1; CRC; KOM); Nervousness (1; CRC; KOM); Neurosis (f; APA; CRC); Pain (1; HH2; WBB); Phthisis (f; WBB; WOI); Senility (1; APA; PH2); Sore Throat (f; APA; MAD; PH2); Worm (f; CRC; WOI) ^{[HMH Duke]}

"Periwinkle soothes nettle rash, they say in the Fen country (Porter. 1969), and an ointment made with it was used for bruises and persistent skin irritation in Scotland (Beith). The roots were a popular colic cure in the Fen country (Porter. 1969), and periwinkle used to be an Irish (County Cavan) treatment for diabetes (Maloney). The leaves laid on gatherings and boils is an Oxfordshire remedy (Oxfordshire and District Folklore Society. Annual Record. 1951). It was reckoned to be good for sore breasts in Lincolnshire, the leaves being crushed and applied to the part (Gutch & Peacock); a poultice of the roots applied to a cow’s udder was said in Cambridgeshire to cure milk fever (Porter. 1969). It is said to be a good remedy for cramp, too (Grieve. 1931). People used to wear bands of green periwinkle about the calf of the leg to prevent it (Fernie), and in Lincolnshire a piece was put between the bed and mattress for the same purpose (Rudkin)." ^{[DPL Watts]}

"Lesser Periwinkle [Vinca minor]has been used as a vulnerary, that is, as a treatment for bleeding wounds (Grigson.1955), or for that matter, any issues of blood. Gerard, for instance, advised its use: “a handfull of the leaves stamped, and the juice given to drinke, in red wine, stoppeth the laske and bloudy flix, spitting of bloud, which never faileth; it likewise stops the inordinate course of the monethly sicknesse”. Add nosebleed to that list (Coats. 1975). There is some suggestion that it is good for the eyes. It is called Old Woman’s Eye in Dorset (Macmillan) (one of its Italian names is Centocchio), and, more interesting, another Dorset name is St Candida’s Eyes. St Candida’s well is at Morecombelake, in Dorset, and the water is said to be a certain cure for sore eyes" ^{[DPL Watts]}

Phytochemicals

See also: Vinca Alkaloids page [page created]

Vinca major

"Over 40 alkaloids may occur in a single plant, for example Vinca major." ^{[Pengelly TCMP]}

V.minor

V. minor; Indole alkaloids (0.15-1.4%): chief alkaloid vincamine (ebumamine-type, 25-65%), including as well vincine, apovincamine, vincadifformin ^[PDR]

V. minor; Flavonoids: including kempferol-3-0-rhamnoside-7-0-glucoside, kempferol-3-0-rhamnoglucoside-3-0-galactoside, kempferol-3-0-rhamnoglucoside-3-0-glucoside, quercetin- 3-0-rhamnoglucoside-7-0-glucoside ^[PDR]

"Vinca alkaloids from the lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor), such as vincristine and vinblastine, and colchicine from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale), are potent cytostatic drugs that bind tubulin and inhibit the assembly of microtubules, thus interfering with the mitotic process." ^[HPIC]

"Vinca minor, V. major—the common periwinkles—contain numerous indole alkaloids including vincamine, majdine, majoridine. Their actions are antihaemorrhagic and astringent. Vinca spp. do not contain the antineoplastic alkaloids found in Cantharanthus (Wren 1988)." ^{[Pengelly TCMP]}

“...vallesiachotamine and isovallesiachotamine were isolated from a Vinca species for the first time. V. minor may be considered as a new source for these two alkaloids due to their occurrence in high amount in the aerial parts of the plant. The alkaloid extracts of the two Vinca species [V. Major and V. Minor] were found to have high lipid peroxidation inhibitory and DPPH radical scavenging activities. Anticholinesterase activity of the extracts was also very strong.” ^[IAVMM]

"VINCAMINE Vincamine is an indole alkaloid, found in the leaves of the periwinkle, Vinca minor (L.), family Apocynaceae, indigenous to Central and South Europe, where it grows in shady places. Clinical pharmacology shows that vincamine increases the cerebral circulation, and glucose uptake in ischaemic parts of the brain, and thus decreases cerebral oedema and the viscosity of the blood. As compared to the effect of placebo, 60 mg vincamine administered orally daily gives a significant effect with improved intellectual performance." ^{[Sandberg NR]}

"The alkaloid vincamine is hypotensive, negatively chronotropic, spasmolytic, hypoglycemic and sympatholytic. Scientifically validated studies on the hypotensive effect on humans have not yet been carried out. Its use as an amaroid seems plausible." ^[PDR]

"Vincamine constitutes about 25–65 % of indole alkaloids extracted from Vinca minor [24]." ^{[Ramawat NP]}

"...the monoterpenoid indole alkaloid vincamine isolated from Vinca minor L. (family Apocynaceae Juss.) is a commercial vasorelaxant used to treat poor cerebral perfusion and has been shown to exhibit Ca2+-channel blocking effects.91 The exact role of cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels in cell division and apoptosis is not yet fully understood but some evidence suggests that they play critical roles in the proliferation of certain types of cancer cell.92,93" ^{[Wiart LC]}

"Reserpine Synonyms Crystoserpine; Eskaserp; Rau-sed; Reserpoid; Rivasin; Serfin; Sandril; Sedaraupin; Serpasil; Serpine; Serpasol; Serpiloid. Biological Sources It is obtained from the plant Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae) (Periwinkle, Madagascar or Cape Periwinkle, Old Maid); root of Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth (Apocynaceae) (Rauvolfia, Chandra, Sarpaganda); root of Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. (Apocynaceae) (Pinque-Pinque); and from the plant of Vinca minor L. (Apocynaceae) (Periwinkle)." ^[PCPB]

Akuammine - Indole - Picralima spp., Cabucala spp. and Vinca spp. (Apocynaceae) - Serotonin antagonist ^{[Wink APR39]}

Reserpine - Indole - Rauwolfia spp. Vinca minor, Alstonia constrictor, Tenduzia longifolia, Vallesia dichotoma, Excavatia coccinea and other genera (Apocynaceae) - Adrenergic antagonist ^{[Wink APR39]}

Vincamine - Indole - Vinca spp., Tabaernaemontana rigida (Apocynaceae) - Inhibitor of voltage-gated Na+-channels ^{[Wink APR39]}

Pharmacology

Commercial Preparations

"Chemicals extracted from the periwinkle plant (Vinca major, Vinca minor and Vinca rosea) have found extensive use in the treatment of many ailments. It has been shown that two of the active compounds in this plant are dimeric alkaloids known as vincristine and vinblastine, sold under the names of "Oncovin®" and "Velban®", respectively. Numerous studies have demonstrated the use of these two extracts in the treatment of various forms of cancer. For example, vincristine has been used in the treatment of acute leukemia and may be used in combination with other oncolytic agents for the treatment of Hodgkin's disease, lymphosarcoma, reticulum-cell sarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, neuroblastoma and Wilm's tumor. Vinblastine is indicated in the treatment of Hodgkin's disease, Kaposi's sarcoma, mycosis fungoides, various types of lymphomas, and other carcinomas." ^[Thame,1989]

"Vincristine and vinblastine have been shown to be capable of suppressing herpes simplex virus infections. (Tokumaru and Avitabile, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 1971). U.S. Pat. No. 4,328,231 discloses a class of compounds, at least some of which can be isolated from Vinca minor, useful in treating skin diseases such as psoriasis." ^[Thame,1989]

"The present invention uses periwinkle extract for several oral hygiene purposes. These include plaque reduction, control of volatile sulfur compounds (which is related to breath freshening), cleaning of the teeth and conditioning of gum tissue, and relieving the symptoms of gingivitis. The extract appears to possess antimicrobial properties." ^[Thame,1989]

Claims

"An oral hygiene method for reducing plaque and for the treatment of periodontal diseases of bacterial etiology, the method comprising reducing bacterial activity in the oral cavity by applying to the oral cavity a composition containing from about 0.3% to about 50% by weight of a dried methanol extract from the perennial herb periwinkle." ^[Thame,1989]

Vinca major and V. Minor;

• "Discovered in more recent years to contain beneficial alkaloids, not only were they much recommended in the herbals but in the hills of western Dorset they have acquired a name,‘St Candida’s Eyes’, associating them with a medieval healer of local fame." ^[MPFT]
• "A more widespread name, cutfinger, proclaims the healing properties contained in the leaves, which when crushed or infused or included in an ointment have been applied to minor cuts and sores of various kinds in Devon, Oxfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, to bruises and persistent skin irritations in the Highlands, to boils in Oxfordshire and to nosebleeds there, too, and in Devon." ^[MPFT]
• "The leaves also have a sedative effect when chewed or otherwise consumed, making them valued in Devon for nervous disorders, hysteria and to sufferers from nightmares30 and for toothache in Oxfordshire." ^[MPFT]
• "The roots, too, have been brought to bear on colic in the Cambridgeshire Fens." ^[MPFT]
• "More esoterically, periwinkles even had a reputation for keeping away cramp: in Somerset a decoction of the stems was drunk to that end, in Lincolnshire a piece of the plant was inserted between the bedclothes and the mattress, while in Devon the method was to wind the stem around any part of the body." ^[MPFT]

Cultivation

V. major, V. minor; "A very easily grown plant, it succeeds in almost any soil[200] but prefers those that are on the richer side[17]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Plants are very shade tolerant but they do not flower so well in deep shade[11, 28, 31]. They grow well under deciduous trees[187], and in such a situation can succeed in dry soils[190]. Established plants are drought tolerant[190]. A very ornamental[1] and polymorphic plant[200], there are some named forms selected for their ornamental value[187]. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer or rabbits[233]. This species rarely if ever sets seed in Britain[4]. It spreads rapidly by long trailing stems that root at their tips and leaf nodes, it can be invasive[4, 238]. Once it is established it will swamp out smaller plants[4]." ^[PFAF]

• Vinca minor can be used as a living mulch. ^{[Hemenway GG]}

"The ability of Trichoderma spp. to promote plant growth when there is apparent absence of pathogens that it could be controlling makes it a more interesting ally for healthier and more productive soil systems. Chang et al. (1986) found that when T. harzianum was added to either steamed or raw soil, it reduced the time to flowering for periwinkle (Vinca minor) and increased the number of blooms/plant in chrysanthemums." ^{[Uphoff BASSS]}

"V.minor and V.major have similar uses. They are trailing evergreen shrubs from Europe, growing 20-50 cm (8-20") high and spreading widely and rapidly via trailing and rooting stems. Hardy to - 20°C. They grow in most soils and in sun or heavy shade; drought tolerant. Good under deciduous trees - a good understorey plant for agroforestry systems. They are cultivated commercially and harvested from wild plants. The plants are sedative and tonic. They contain the alkaloid 'vincamine', which is used by the pharmaceutical industry as a cerebral stimulant and vasodilator. A homeopathic remedy is also made from the fresh leaves. The leaves are usually harvested in spring. Dry yields are about 0.7- 1.5 tonnes/ha (0.3-0.6 tons/acre). The dry herb wholesales for about £6/kg ($4.4/1b)." ^{[ARA 8.3]}

"Vinca spp. Periwinkle. Evergreen prostrate shrubs with long trailing thin stems - makes good ground cover in shade. Hardy to Hardy to -20°C (-4°F) or so." ^{[ARA 10.1]}

Propagation

V. major, V. minor; "Seed - we have no information on this species but suggest sowing the seed in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe if possible. Sow stored seed in late winter in a cold frame. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. Division in spring just before active growth commences[78], or in autumn[1]. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them out in the summer or the following spring. Cuttings of mature wood of the current seasons growth, 5 - 10 cm long, October in a cold frame. Roots quickly. High percentage[78]." ^[PFAF]

Other Related Species

"Vinca and Catharanthus are closely related and both called periwinkle. They are commonly domesticated and often escape into the wild. Vinca is used medicinally as an internal astringent for excess menstrua- tion, hemorrhoids, bleeding ulcers and diarrhea (Willard). As a capillary constrictor it may be useful for migraine headaches (Tilford). The dried leaves have been smoked as a hallucinogen, but with serious side effects. It causes an immediate reduction in the white blood cell count and makes the hair fallout (JEmboden). Vinblastine and vincristine are two indole alkaloids derived from a species of periwinkle that are used in the treatment of blood and lymph cancers." ^[BIAD]

"The secondary metabolites of C. roseus have received particular attention as containing numbers of physiologically potent indole alkaloids. The alkaloids, called Vinca alkaloids, have been thoroughly studied (Taylor and Farnsworth 1975), and over 60 kinds of alkaloids have been isolated and identified from the plant. Major alkaloids are ajmalicine and serpentine, which are known to be useful in the treatment of hypertension. Vindolin and catharanthine are biosynthetic precursors ofthe dimeric indole alkaloid, vinblastine (vincaleukablastine), which is one of the most valuable Vinca alkaloids used in nti-cancer therapy. The production of the alkaloids in the intact plant of C. roseus is quite limited. Therefore, the cell culture of this plant has been carried out extensively in many laboratories for the production of valuable secondary metabolites (see Van der Heijden et al. 1989; Hirata et al. 1994). On the other hand, steroidal components of C. roseus have attracted little attention. The seed oil of the plant has been found to contain sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol as the main sterols (Saeed et al. 1991)." ^{[Bajaj MAPS 9]}

"Catharanthus roseus contains more than 120 different types of alkaloids, designated as terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs). Among the TIAs, vincristine (VCR) and vinblastine (VLB) find extensive use in the treatments of leukaemias, lymphomas, small cell lung cancer and other malignancies (Noble, 1990; Pratt et al., 1994). Vincristine has been an integral component of combination chemotherapy regimens for ALL (acute lymphoblastic leukaemia) and plays an important role in the treatment of Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas. It has also been used in combination with other agents to treat Wilm’s tumour, Ewing’s sarcoma, neuroblastoma, and rhabdomyosarcoma in children; and multiple myeloma, breast cancer and small cell lung cancer in adults. Vinblastine is used for the treatment of cell cancers of the testes and advanced Hodgkin’s disease, and is commonly used in combination with other agents to treat carcinomas of the breast and bladder, Kaposi’s sarcoma and other neoplasms (Rowinsky and Donehower, 1997). The indole alkaloids of Catharanthus represent a market of considerable economic interest and there is a potential in-house demand as well as a world-wide international market. The anti-cancer Catharanthus alkaloids have a market value as follows: vincristine ($3,5,00,000 per kg); vinblastine ($1,000,000/ kg) (Veltkamp et al., 1985). Their retail value is more than $20,000/ g (Curtin, 1983). The high prices are mainly due to the costly methods currently available for production of these compounds, and the low yields obtained from the source plants, e.g., the yield of vincristine from C. roseus whole plants is of the order of 0.0003–0.0005%, which happens to be the lowest yield of any medicinally useful alkaloid produced on a commercial basis (Taylor and Farnsworth, 1975; Curtin, 1983). Nearly 500 kg of leaves are needed to produce just 1 g of purified vincristine, meaning thereby that about 10,000–15,000 kg leaves are required to produce just 30 g of the drug. Up to 16 weeks may be required for processing. This is one of the reasons behind the high cost of these alkaloids. In the 1970s, the annual world supply of these drugs was of the order of 4.5 kg. The current annual demand for the dimeric/monomeric alkaloids is as follows: VCR: 1 kg per year; VLB: 12 kg per year; ajmalicine: 5000 kg/ year. India happens to be the third largest manufacturer of vinblastine and vincristine in the world and these alkaloids are exported to Europe and America (Rama Rao and Gurjar, 1990). In 1985–86, Indian exports of Catharanthus roots alone were worth US$140,625, and in 1987–88, US$171,875. In 1993–94 Vinca alkaloids alone worth > US$210,000 were exported (Chaudhri, 1996). The demand of these alkaloids in the international market has been steadily increasing." ^{[Arora MPB]}

"The genus name, Catharanthus, refers to ‘pure flower’. Catharanthus is often considered synonymous to Vinca, however, certain authors disagree with the proposition that Catharanthus and Vinca are one and the same. As of now, Catharanthus and Vinca are considered two different species." ^[PTH]

"Some confusion exists about the botanical name of this plant, and names such as Lochnera rosea, Vinca rosea, and Ammocallis rosea are sometimes used; the correct name is Catharanthus roseus [2]. Vinca is another genus in the Apocynaceae, and Vinca major and V. minor are classified in this genus, but produce a very different range of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids. Occasionally, the bisindole alkaloids vinblastine (vincaleukoblastine, VLB) and vincristine (leurocristine, VCR) are referred to as “Vinca” alkaloids, which is a misnomer; these bisindole alkaloids should be correctly referred to as Catharanthus alkaloids." ^{[Funayama Alkaloids]}

• Vinca erecta Distribution: Toshkent, Farg’ona, and Surxondaryo provinces of Uzbekistan; Osh and Jalal-Abad provinces of Kyrgyzstan.
  • "Traditional use: In mountain zones where these plants are growing, local populations use decoctions and infusions of the aboveground parts to treat febrile diseases. A decoction of the roots is used as an emetic (Kurmukov 1970 ) . The leaves are used in a tea to treat diarrhea and gastrointestinal disorders, headaches and dizziness, and as a mouthwash for toothaches. The fresh leaves are applied to wounds. A powder is used externally as an astringent and to heal wounds (Khalmatov et al. 1984 ; Khodzhimatov 1989 ) ." ^{[Eisenman MPCA]}
  • "Documented effects: The total alkaloids of the aboveground parts have different actions at different doses. In low and middle doses they act as a sedative and at major doses they have a stimulating effect on the central nervous system. The preparation, Vinsumine , has antispasmodic, adrenolytic and ganglion blocking (ganglions of cardiac branches of vagus nerves) actions, it changes signals from the carotid and sciatic nerves which in fl uence arterial pressure, and it releases and prevents cardiac arrhythmia caused by electric heart stimulation and by intravenous introduction of 10 % calcium chloride solution. All effects of Vinsumine are due to the alkaloids it contains (Kurmukov and Sultanov 1965 ; Kurmukov 1967a , b ) . The alkaloids akuamidine, tombozine, and ervine have a -adrenolytic action. Ervine shows pronounced anti- fi brillating action for cardiac arrhythmia (Kurmukov 1968b, 1970, 1975, 1978 ) . Ervamine had tranquilizing and hemostatic effects. Intravenous injection had a brief hypotensive effect, increased the amplitude and decreased the frequency of heart contractions, and also increased the coronary blood fl ow. Ervamine also had a substantial effect on the smooth muscle of the uterus both in vivo and in vitro (Sultanov and Kurmukov 1965 ). The alkaloid ervinine is an analeptic of the central nervous system with primary in fl uence on respiration and stimulates reticular formations of the medulla oblongata and midbrain due to stimulation of adrenergic structures (Saidkasimov 1960 ; Kurmukov and Saidkasymov 1968 ; Kurmukov and Saidkasimov 1969 ; Kurmukov 1970 ) . The alkaloid vincamine has stimulatory action on uterine unstriped muscles and stimulates contractions in weak labors. It was used in obstetrics under the preparation name Vikametrin . The alkaloid vincarine has anti-arrhythmic action and is not inferior to aimaline (Khanov et al. 1968, 1972 ; Kurmukov 1968a, 1970 ; Kurmukov and Sultanov 1971 ) . The alkaloid vincanine is a strychnine-like spasmodic and analeptic of the central nervous system (Sultanov 1959b ; Shamansurov and Sultanov 1967 ) . The main effect of the alkaloid vincanidine is an apomorphine- like emetic action (Sultanov 1959a, 1960 ) . Vinervinine suppressed central nervous system activity in mice and its effect on blood pressure and respiration was similar to that of acetylcholine (Kurmukov 1967b )." ^{[Eisenman MPCA]}
  • "Phytochemistry: The following alkaloids have been obtained from the aboveground plant parts collected in different areas of Uzbekistan: vincamine, ervamine, ervinine, ervine, vinervine, vinervinine, akuamine, akuamidine, reserpinine, isoreserpiline, and vincamine. Alkaloids, including vincanine and vincanidine, have been isolated from the roots. More than 60 other alkaloids have been isolated from this species (Yunusov 1981 ; Yagudaev et al. 1983 ) ." ^{[Eisenman MPCA]}
• Viola suavis - Russian violet
  • "Distribution: Cultivated in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. Traditional use: A syrup made from the aboveground parts is used as a diuretic, anti-in fl ammatory, expectorant, diaphoretic, and choleretic. A decoction is used to treat coughs, sinus colds and illnesses of the eyes, throat, and stomach. The roots are used as an emetic and laxative. In Turkmenistan and the Caucasus a decoction of the fl owers with sugar is used to treat heart illnesses (Plant Resources of the USSR 1986 ) ." [Eisenman MPCA]
  • "Phytochemistry: Aboveground parts have essential oil and vitamin C (Plant Resources of the USSR 1986 ) ." ^{[Eisenman MPCA]}

References

• [2]Personal Observation/Notes
• [ARA]
  • 8.3 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol 8 No 3, April 2000
  • 10.1 AGROFORESTRY NEWS Vol.10 No 1, October 2001
• [DukePhyt] http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ Jan 10 07:32:10 EST 2015
• [E-flora]
  • http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Vincamajor&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 , Accessed Jan 11, 2015, December 23, 2020
  • http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Vinca%20minor&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Aug 29, 2016, December 23, 2020
• [Jepson] 2013. Vinca, Thomas J. Rosatti & Lauramay T. Dempster, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=48131, accessed on Jan 11 2015
• [IAVMM]Nat Prod Commun. 2012 Jun;7(6):731-4. Indole alkaloids from Vinca major and V. minor growing in Turkey. Bahadori F1, Topçu G, Boğa M, Türkekul A, Kolak U, Kartal M.
• [IMGA]Iridoids, monoterpenoid glucoindole alkaloids and flavonoids from Vinca major, Didem Şöhretoğlua, Milena Masullob, Sonia Piacenteb, Hasan Kirmizibekmezc, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, Volume 49, August 2013, Pages 69–72
• [MANIA]Majvinine: A new indole alkaloid of Vinca major, Avijit Banerji, Manas Chakrabarty, Phytochemistry, Volume 16, Issue 7, 1977, Pages 1124–1125
• [PFAF] Plants for A Future
  • [1]http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?latinname=Vinca+major
  • [2]http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?latinname=Vinca+minor
• Thame,1989 - Use of periwinkle in oral hygiene, Patent - US 4853213 A, https://www.google.com/patents/US4853213
• Wikipedia.org, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincamine, Accessed Jan 10, 2015
  • [1]"Indole Alkaloids". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Fifth ed.). Wiley-VCH. 1985. p. 393. ISBN 3-527-20100-9.