Rubus Sp. - Raspberry & Blackberry

Rose Family

"Generally shrub; (dioecious).
Stem: persisting 1–2 years, rooting at tips and/or nodes or not, erect or arched to mounded or prostrate, 5-angled or not, hairy or glabrous, glaucous or not, stalked glands present or not; bristles or prickles 0–many, prickles stout and wide-based or weak and slender, straight or curved.
Leaf: simple, palmately lobed, to palmately compound, leaflets 3 or 5(11), toothed, abaxially ± glabrous to densely hairy; stipules thread-like to ovate or elliptic.
Inflorescence: raceme- or panicle-like cyme, axillary or terminal; pedicel bractlets 0.
Flower: generally bisexual; hypanthium flat to saucer-shaped, bractlets 0; sepals persistent, reflexed to ascending, ovate or lance-ovate, hairy or glabrous, stalked or sessile glands present or not, tip pointed, prickly or not; petals widely obovate, spoon-shaped, or elliptic, white to ± pink or magenta; stamens generally >> 20, filaments thread- or strap-like; pistils 5–150, receptacle flat or convex to conical, spongy, generally elongated in fruit, ovaries superior, hairy or glabrous, styles long, slender or short, thick, glabrous or hairy; ovules 2, 1 maturing.
Fruit: fleshy-coated achenes, aggregate of few to many, yellow, orange, red, or black, generally falling as unit, separating with (blackberry-type) or without (raspberry-type) receptacle attached.
400–750 species: worldwide except Antarctica, especially northern temperate. (Latin: red; ancient name for bramble, blackberry)
Unabridged references: [Alice & Campbell 1999 Amer J Bot 86:81–97]" ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Rubus arcticus - nagoonberry ^[E-flora]
   • & ssp. stellatus ^[E-flora]
2. Rubus discolor - Himalayan blackberry ^[E-flora]
3. Rubus chamaemorus - cloudberry ^[E-flora]
4. Rubus idaeus - red raspberry ^[E-flora]
   • ssp strigosus ^[E-flora]
5. Rubus laciniatus - cutleaf evergreen blackberry ^[E-flora]
6. Rubus lasiococcus - dwarf bramble ^[E-flora]
7. Rubus leucodermis - black raspberry ^[E-flora]
8. Rubus nivalis - snow bramble ^[E-flora]
9. Rubus parviflorus - Thimbleberry ^[E-flora]
10. Rubus pedatus - five-leaved bramble ^[E-flora]
11. Rubus spectabilis - Salmonberry ^[E-flora]
12. Rubus ursinus & ssp macropetalus - trailing blackberry ^[E-flora]

Habitat/Range:

• R. arcticus; Bogs, fens, swamps, wet to moist meadows, thickets and open forests in the montane to alpine zones; frequent throughout BC, mostly in and east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; circumpolar, N to AK, E to NF and S to MT, CO and MN; Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R. chamaemorus; Bogs and wet peaty soil in boggy forests in the lowland and montane zones; frequent in BC north of 55degreeN, infrequent southward, absent from SC and SE BC; circumboreal, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to NY and ME; Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R. lasiococcus; Mesic to moist thickets and open forests in the montane and lower subalpine zones; rare in SW BC; S to N CA. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R.laciniaus; Moist to wet waste places, ditches and roadsides in the lowland zone; common in SW BC; introduced from Europe. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R.leucodermis; Dry to moist thickets, rocky slopes, clearings and open forests of the lowland to montane zones; common in SW BC, infrequent in SC and SE BC; S to MT, WY, UT, NV and CA. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R.nivalis; Moist forests and glades in the montane zone; rare in S BC; S to CA and ID. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R.parviflorus; Moist to mesic open forests, thickets, streambanks, clearings and roadsides in the lowland to subalpine zones; common throughout S BC, south of approximately 56oN; N to S AK, E to ON and S to MI, MN, N MX, NM and CO. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• R.pedatus; Moist to mesic open forests, glades and streambanks in the lowland to subalpine zones; common throughout BC, especially south; N to AK, E to AB and S to MT, ID and OR.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• R.ursinus; Dry to moist thickets, clearings, waste places and open forests in the lowland to lower montane zones; common in SW BC; S to ID and N CA. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  

Ecological Indicator Species

R.laciniaus;
"Ecological Indicator Information: A shade-intolerant, sub montane to montane, European deciduous shrub introduced to North America (presently transcontinental). Species occurs on water-shedding and water-receiving sites in boreal. temperate, cool semiarid, and cool mesothermal climates; on fresh to very moist, nitrogen-rich soils. Plentiful in initial communities on cutover and burnt sites; scattered in open-canopy, immature forests. Often associated with Epilobium angustifolium, Pteridium aquilinum, and Rubus parviflorus. May hinder natural regeneration, and establishment of shade-intolerant conifers. Nitrophytic species characteristic of disturbed sites." ^{[IPBC-E-flora]}

R.parviflorus;
"Ecological Indicator Information: A shade-tolerant/intolerant, submontane to subalpine, North American deciduous shrub distributed equally in the Pacific, Cordilleran, and Central regions. Occurs on nitrogen-rich soils within boreal, temperate, and mesothermal climates; its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation and latitude and increases with increasing continentality. Very common in open-canopy forests and early-seral com­munities on cutover and/ or burnt sites where it may hinder natural regeneration and growth of shade-intolerant conifers. Usually associated with Alnus rubra, Athyrium filix-femina, Epilobium angustifolium, Oplopanax horridus, Rubus spectabilis, Sambucus racemosa, Streptopus roseus, and Tiarella unifoliata. A nitrophytic species characteristic of Moder and Mull humus forms.^{[IPBC-E-flora]}

R.pedatus;
"Ecological Indicator Information: A shade-tolerant, montane to subalpine, Asian and Western North American forb distributed equally in the Pacific and Cordilleran regions. Occurs in boreal and cool temperate climates on fresh to very moist, nitrogen-poor soils; its occurrence increases with increasing elevation and precipitation and decreases with increasing latitude. Common in semi-open coniferous forests on water­shedding and water-receiving sites. Typically associated with Blechnum spicant, Clintonia uniflora, Rhododendron albiflorum, Rhytidiopsis robusta, Vaccinium alaskaense, and V. membranaceum. An oxylophytic species characteristic of Mor humus forms.^{[IPBC-E-flora]}

R.ursinus;
"Ecological Indicator Information: A shade-tolerant/intolerant, submontane to montane, Western North American deciduous shrub distributed more in the Pacific than the Cordilleran region. Occurs in maritime to submaritime cool mesothermal climates on moderately dry to fresh. nitrogen-medium soils; its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation and continentality. Common but scattered in forest understories on disturbed, water-shedding sites. often plentiful in disturbed and early seral communities on cutover-and/or burnt sites. Usually associated with Anaphalis margaritacea, Epilobium angustifolium. Gaultheria shallon. Kindbergia oregana, Mahonia nervosa, and Pteridium aquilinum. Characteristic of young-seral mesothermal forests.^{[IPBC-E-flora]}

Species Mentioned: Raspberry - Rubus Sp. [FFWE]

Edible Uses

• Flowers
• R. pedatus; Flowers - raw[172]. ^[PFAF]
• R. nivalis; Flowers - raw. Sweet and delicious [172]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Young Shoots
• Rubus parviflorus; "Also, great quantities of the tender young shoots were eaten raw in the spring (Paul, 1968)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
• R. spectabilis;The young shoots were also eaten. They were collected in the spring when little other food was available. They were peeled, broken into pieces, and eaten raw with oil, dried salmon spawn, or, in recent times, sugar (Boas, 1921; Brown, 1969). ^{[Turner&Bell2]}"Salmonberry sprouts were eaten by all of the Island Indians. They were gathered in the early spring, and were usually the first fresh food of the season.... They were peeled and eaten raw (Paul, 1968) or steamed with salmon or salmon roe (Anderson, 1925)."^{[Turner&Bell1]}
• R. ursinus; raw or cooked like asparagus[183]. They are harvested in the spring as they emerge through the soil and are still tender. The young shoots can be made into a tea, usually mixed with the young shoots of other Rubus species[257]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Young Sprouts/Twigs
• The tender young peeled sprouts and twigs of raspberries and blackberries are also edible by humans, being something pleasant to chew on when you're in the woods and fields. ^[FFWE]
  
• Leaves
• Tea: The leaves provide another of the wilderness teas.^[FFWE]
  
• R. pedatus; The leaves are used as a tea substitute[172]. ^[PFAF]
• R. nivalis; The fresh or dried leaves are used as a tea substitute[61, 105, 183].^[PFAF]
  
• R. ursinus; A tea is made from the fresh or dried leaves[177, 183, 257]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Berries
• You can make a refreshing drink from the ripe berries, too, pressing jars full of them, filling in the spaces with vinegar, and letting stand for a month. Then strain off the juice and seal what you don't use right away in sterilized containers. To serve, sweeten to taste and dilute with iced water. ^[FFWE]
  Wine: Blackberry wine appeals to some, especially where the bushes are thick with this fruit. After carefully picking over and cleaning a mess of berries, drop them into a crock and crush them thoroughly. Let the mashed berries remain there for a week stirring them daily. Then strain out all the juice.
  For every 3 quarts of juice, use 1 pound of sugar. Boil this with the least amount of water required to dissolve it. Then pour the hot syrup into the juice. Leave in the crock for another full day. Then pour into sterilized bottles or jugs, covering these only with a cloth, as gases will be escaping during the fermentation. When this bubbling process has stopped, taste the wine. If it does not seem sweet enough, add to taste cold sugar syrup, made by slowly simmering 1 cup of sugar in 1/2 cup of water until syrupy. Bottle. [FFWE]
  
• R. laciniatus; Fruit - raw or cooked[3, 34, 101, 257]. Large sweet and juicy with a fine flavour[11, 183]. The fruit is about 20mm in diameter[200].^[PFAF]
  
• R. leucodermis; These berries are called by the same name as raspberries. They were eaten both fresh and dried in cakes (Cranmer, 1969). ^{[Turner&Bell2]} "The sweet juicy berries were eaten by all Island Salish groups. Usually they were mashed and dried in long rectangular frames. The 1.5 inch thick cakes produced were cut into squares and stored for winter. Before use, they were soaked in water overnight. These rehydrated cakes tasted just like fresh berries (Paul, 1968)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
• R. nivalis; Fruit - raw or cooked[2, 61, 105, 257]. Very sweet, juicy and palatable with a pineapple-like aroma[1, 101, 172, 183]. Delicious when eaten out of hand, they are also used in making cakes, jams etc[183]. Unfortunately, they are often not produced very prolifically in a garden situation in Britain, probably because they prefer colder winters.^[PFAF]
• R. parviflorus; "Thimbleberries were picked with the stems still attached when they were just turning pink. They were put into a cedar bark bag (in recent times, a pillowcase was used) with a little water and left for a day or two until they were red. Then the stems were taken off and the berries were eaten fresh or were dried in cakes for winter use. They are still used today for making jams and preserves (Brown, 1969; Cranmer, 1969)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]}"The berries were eaten fresh, boiled, or dried into cakes by all of the Island Salish groups." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
• R. pedatus; Fruit - raw or cooked and used in pies, preserves etc[101, 105, 161, 183]. It makes an excellent jelly[183, 257]. The fruit is juicy and has a rich flavour[2, 183]. Another report says that the flavour is not particularly wonderful and the fruits are small, soft and difficult to pick in any quantity[256].^[PFAF]
  
• R. procerus; Fruit - raw or cooked in pies, cakes etc[3, 105, 183]. The fruit can also be dried for later use[183]. Very large for a blackberry[50, 183] with a very pleasant rich flavour when fully ripe[K].^[PFAF]
  
• R. spectabilis;Salmonberries were eaten fresh or boiled, mashed, and dried in cedar wood frames for winter use. The resulting cakes were rolled up and stored in wooden boxes (Brown, 1969; Cranmer, 1969). ^{[Turner&Bell2]} "In the summer the berries were also an important food but they were always eaten fresh, as they were too watery to dry in cakes.^{" [Turner&Bell1]}
  
• R. ursinus; Fruit - raw or cooked and used in pies, preserves etc[177, 183]. The fruit can also be dried for later use[183]. A sweet flavour[11, 62, 101, 105]. The fruit can vary in flavour, the best forms have a large, sweet and well flavoured fruit[183], whilst some forms are large but sour or insipid[2]. The half-ripe fruits can be soaked in water to make a pleasant drink[183].^[PFAF] Rubus ursinus Cham. & Schlecht. Mora, zarzamora; tiq'itiq' (B), tiqitiq (I), tihi (V). Berries eaten, but those that grew in damp places were believed to be unhealthy. [3][Ethchumash] The Kwakiutl ate blackberries, both fresh and dried (Brown, 1969; Cranmer, 1969). ^{[Turner&Bell2]} "Blackberries were eaten by all of the Island Salish groups. They were eaten fresh, or mashed and dried in the same manner as salal berries and blackcaps. The cakes were stored in alder crates. Before use, one cut off a piece of the cake and put it in hot water. In recent times, sugar was added (Paul, 1968)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}

Other Uses

• Dye: R. pedatus, R. procerus, R. ursinus, R. nivalis, R. laciniatus; A purple to dull blue dye is obtained from the fruit[168]. ^[PFAF]
• Wood: R. spectabilis; The wood was sometimes used for making arrow shafts (Boas, 1935).^{[Turner&Bell2]}

Medicinal Uses

• Bark: R. spectabilis; "For sores and burns, the bark was hammered with a stone, and the resulting powder was sprinkled on the skin (Boas, 1930)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]} "Haskin (1934) mentions that the bark was used as an astringent by some Indian groups, and as a remedy for indigestion caused by eating too much salmon. He also states that salmonberries were pulverized, mixed with fish oil, and rubbed on the hair."^{[Turner&Bell1]}
  
• Leaves: R. parviflorus; "The leaves were boiled with blackberry roots and vines (Rubus ursinus) and taken for vomiting and spitting of blood (Boas, 1966). The leaves were dried and powdered and sprinkled on wounds to make them heal (Cranmer, 1969). They were also apparently eaten for internal disorders (Johnson, 1969). If a woman's period was unduly long, thimbleberry leaves were used to catch the menstrual blood. It was thought that this would shorten the time of the period (Boas, 1966)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]}
• Rubus parviflorus; "The Saanich chewed the dried brown leaves to ease stomach aches or to stop diarrhoea (op. cit.)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
• Rubus ursinus; "The Saanich made a good tea from the old dry leaves (op. cit.). The Songish chewed the green berries and spread them on swellings and sores (Boas, 1890). In a purification ritual before dancing, Saanich initiates used blackberry stems to scrub their bodies, often until they bled (Paul, 1968)." ^{[Turner&Bell1]}
  
• Root: R. ursinus; The dried bark of the root is astringent and has been used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery[213]. A decoction of the roots has been used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery[257]. The roots have been used as a disinfectant wash on infected sores[257]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Fruit: R. ursinus; The fresh fruit has been eaten in the treatment of diarrhoea[257]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Vine: R. ursinus; A decoction of the entire vine has been used in the treatment of stomach complaints, diarrhoea and a general feeling of sickness[257]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Vine & Roots: R. ursinus; A decoction has been used in the treatment of vomiting and the spitting of blood[257]. ^[PFAF] "The vines and roots were boiled with thimbleberry leaves (Rubus parviflorus) to make a medicine for vomiting and spitting of blood (Boas, 1966). The vines were also used in a treatment for diarrhoea (see Blechnum)." ^{[Turner&Bell2]}

References

• E-flora -
• Jepson - Lawrence A. Alice, 2012. Rubus, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=42027, accessed on Mar 13 2014
• PFAF
  • R. laciniatus
  • R. nivalis
  • R. pedatus
  • R. procerus
  • R. ursinus