Red Alder - Alnus rubra

Family: Betulaceae (Birch Family) ^[E-flora]

Emetic Inner Bark Wood; Dye (Red-Brown); Cooking tools Bark;Topical

Identification

"Alnus rubra is a deciduous Tree growing to 20 m (65ft 7in) at a fast rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 6. It is in flower in March, and the seeds ripen from Sep to October. The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant) and are pollinated by Wind.It can fix Nitrogen.
Suitable for: medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure." ^[PFAF]

"Red alder is probably the most common deciduous tree in the southern part of British Columbia. The leaves normally have shallow, rounded teeth along their margins. The leaves of the cut-leaf mutant form have irregular, sharply pointed teeth and lobes, thus resembling some black oak leaves more than alder leaves." ^[E-flora]

"Called the red alder tree, this species gets its name from the reddish-orange color which quickly develops on freshly exposed wood or bark." ^{(Chen et al.,1997)}

Status: Native ^[E-flora]
General: "Deciduous shrub or tree, up to 25 m tall; axillary buds with stalks; bark scaly, often lichen-covered, yellowish-brown or grey-splotched with white." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Leaves: "Alternate, deciduous, smooth, coarsely to irregularly toothed, the teeth pointing outwards, leaf margins rolled under, brownish in the fall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Flowers: "Inflorescence of male and female catkins which open before the leaves enlarge; male catkins with stalks." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Fruits: "Small nutlets, with narrow-winged margins; female cones 1.5-2.5 cm long, egg-shaped." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Habitat / Range "Moist woodlands, forests, floodplains and clearcuts in the lowland and montane zones; common in coastal BC; N to SE AK and S to CA." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Ecological Indicator Information "A shade-intolerant, sub montane to montane, Pacific North American deciduous broad­leaved tree. An abundant species that grows in cool mesothermal climates on nitrogen-rich soils (Moder and Mull humus forms); its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation and continentality. Forms dense stands in the initial stages of primary succession on floodplains or secondary succession on water­shedding sites. Persists along streams and on water-collecting sites, usually associated with Lysichitum americanum; tolerates fluctuating groundwater tables. This fast -growing tree regenerates abundantly from seed on exposed mineral soil and from stump sprouts following cutting. May hinder regeneration and growth of conifers. Symbiosis with nitrogen­fixing Actinomycetes enhances the supply of available soil nitrogen. Suitable as a temporary nurse species for shade-tolerant conifers, especially on nitrogen-deficient sites; however, it may decrease both soil pH and base content of some soils. Characteristic of young­seral mesothermal forests." ^{[IPBC-E-flora]}

Hazards

Emetic: The fresh inner bark is an emetic, often taken to induce vomiting if a poisonous substance has been ingested. Dry the bark unless you specifically want this action! ^[Schofield] The freshly harvested inner bark is emetic but is alright once it has been dried[172] ^[PFAF]

Edible Uses

• Catkins: Young green catkins chewed ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}. Raw or cooked. A bitter taste[172]. ^[PFAF]
• Inner Bark: Sweet and gelatinous cambium and adjacent inner bark tissues. Edible only for a short time in spring. A patch of bark was removed from the tree, and the edible tissue was scraped off with a scraper or knife and eaten fresh, usually with oil, or dried in cakes. More recently, it was mixed with sugar. Some people believed the inner bark to be thick and edible only when the tide was coming in. ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]} Cooked, It must be dried since it is emetic when fresh[105, 161, 177]. No more details are given but inner bark is often dried, ground into a powder and then used as a thickening in soups etc or mixed with cereals when making bread[K]. ^[PFAF] Alnus rubra - inner bark - consumed as survival food in witer and/or early spring. ^{(TURNER & DAVIS)}
• Sap: Raw[118]. Harvested in late winter, the flow is best on a warm, sunny day that follows a cold frosty night. A sweet flavour, it was often used to sweeten other foods[257]. ^[PFAF]
• Buds: [105, 177]. No further information is given, does this refer to the flower buds or leaf buds?[K]^[PFAF]
• Food Prep: Bark used to color and flavor camas bulbs being pit-cooked. Leaves and branches used to line root-cooking pits. A. rubra & A. crispa were the preferred fuel for smoking salmon, fish, deer and other foods. Alder wood was often used for wooden food dishes because it does not impart strong flavor to the food.^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}

Other Uses

• Tannin: The bark and the strobils are a source of tannin[82]. ^[PFAF]
• Dye: A red to brown dye is obtained from the bark[61, 118, 257]. ^[PFAF]
• Wood: Soft, brittle, not strong, light, close and straight-grained, very durable in water[82]. An important lumber tree, it makes a good imitation mahogany[60, 103] and is used for cheap furniture etc[46, 61, 82, 171, 229]. A good fuel, it does not spark so can be used in the open[60, 118, 172], it also makes a high grade charcoal[103]. ^[PFAF]
• Pulp: "Alnus. Red alder (A. rubra) is pulped in the Pacific Northwest." ^{(Irving H. Isenberg)}
• Basketry: Both the roots and the young shoots have been used in making baskets[257]. ^[PFAF]
• Animal Feed: Alnus rubra Bong. aerial parts used a food for ruminants and to maintain body heat. "Goats are allowed to browse resinous plants in winter to help them maintain body heat: red alder (Alnus rubra), fresh and dried leaves of arbutus (Arbutus menziesii), ...." ^{(Lans et al., 2007)}

Medicinal Uses

• Sap: The sap is applied externally to cuts²⁵⁷. ^[PFAF]
• Catkins: The catkins and young cones are astringent and have been chewed in the treatment of diarrhoea[257]. ^[PFAF]
• Bark: "Red alder was widely employed medicinally by native North American Indians who mainly used the bark to treat a wide range of complaints²⁵⁷. The plant is little used in modern herbalism^K. The bark is appetizer, astringent, cathartic, cytostatic, emetic, stomachic and tonic^{61, 172, 257}. The bark contains salicin²²⁶, which probably decomposes into salicylic acid (closely related to aspirin) in the human body²¹³. This is used as an anodyne and febrifuge²²⁶. An infusion of the bark has been used in the treatment of many complaints such as headaches, rheumatic pains, internal injuries and diarrhoea^{226, 257}. Externally, a poultice of the bark has been applied to eczema, sores and aches²⁵⁷." ^[PFAF] "Alnus rubra bark or the bark of A. incana or A. crispa seems to be used for medicine by most groups in British Co- lumbia and by the Sahaptin of Washington (Hunn 1990) and the Tenaina of Alaska (Kari 1987)." ^{(gottesfeld1992)} "The Haisla mix bark of amabilis fir with other ingredients such as devil's club or red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) bark." ^{(gottesfeld1992)}
• Smoke: "In British Columbia, Canada, the Kwakiutl (Boas 1935), the Bella Coola (Turner 1973), the Kitasoo (Compton 1993), the Nitinaht (Turner et al. 1983), the Oweekeno, the Thompson (Compton 1993), and native tribes from throughout the United States burned the wood of red alder to smoke and preserve salmon and other fish species (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). The Haisla and Hanaksiala, also of Canada, burned the wood to smoke fish and meat (Compton 1993). The Southern Kwakiutl of British Columbia smoked the leaves for pleasure (Gill 1983)." ^[UAPDS]

"Medicinal uses of the bark have been varied and include purgatives, general tonics, and teas for the treatment of digestive and respiratory problems. A bark tea has also been used to relieve heart pain." ^{(Chen et al.,1997)}

Uses
"Alder cambium was scraped off in the spring and eaten fresh with oil by all of the Salish groups on the Island. In some cases, strips of cambium were laid criss-cross to form a cake which was dried for winter (Barnett, 1955). The Saanich put the bark with camas bulbs in steaming pits to make the bulbs red (Suttles, 1951). Underhill (1944) mentions that alder bark was commonly smoked by some Northwest Coast groups. The Saanich used a reddish-brown dye made from alder bark boiled in water to colour fish nets, making them invisible to fish at night (Paul, 1968). This dye was used generally for staining baskets, cedar bark head rings, and the inside of canoes. The Saanich also made red tattoo marks with powder obtained from a burnt mixture of alder and cedar bark and a hemlock fungus (Jenness, ca. 1945). Many Northwest Coast Indian legends, particularly of the Kwakiutl (Boas, 1935), mention the chewing of aider bark to feign bleeding from the mouth, a sign of dying.
The even-grained wood was the most common dish-carving material on the Island. It was also used for arrow points, spoons, and other articles. The Songish used it for smoking fish, to which it imparted a pleasant flavour (Mitchell, 1968). The sap was used as a tonic by old Saanich people. It was thought to be good for the stomach (Suttles, 1951). The Songish soaked the sap in water and drank it to purify the blood (Mitchell, 1968). The bark was used by the Kwakiutl, and perhaps by the Coast Salish also, as a cure for tuberculosis (Boas, 1935). Mitchell (1968) states that alder buds were chewed and rubbed into sores and wounds by the Songish. They also burned the fruits to a powder and spread it over burns (Boas, 1890)." ^{[Turner&Bell]}

Bella Coola: Bark boiled, and a cupful of the decoction taken internally as a purgative.
Southern Carrier: Sap applied to cuts. Not used for a medicinal decoction.
Northern Carrier: Inside bark ground, steeped in water, and injected with a syringe made from the crop of a bird, for biliousness.
Gitksan: Bark and roots boiled for about six hours and the decoction drunk in the morning for a cough. Bark from the stem, but not from the roots, scraped, mixed with water, and the infusion taken internally, as an emetic and purgative, for headache and many other maladies. ^{[Smith(1927)]}

Actions

Alterative; Astringent; Cancer(Epithelium); Emetic, Fumitory; Tonic.^[Duke]

"PREPARATIONS—
Specific Medicine Alnus Dose, from one to sixty minims.
Therapy—This agent combines both alterative and tonic astringent properties. It removes waste products, improves the tone of mucous structures and increases the secretory action of the glands of these structures. At the same time it prevents the flow of an excessive quantity of mucus into the stomach, and stimulates the flow of gastric juice and aids the digestion. It cures various forms of ulcerations in the mouth, or in the gastro-intestinal canal. It is advised in rhus poisoning. It has accomplished satisfactory cures in pustular and eczematous disease of the skin." ^[Ellingwood]
One source “…suggests the use of alnus in the treatment of syphilis.” It’s given “…in conjunction with echinacea and stillingia with successful results. It can be given as high as thirty drops at a dose, four times a day….” ^[Ellingwood]

Antibacterial

"Antibacterial activity is present in Alnus rubra,...." ^{(Heaton, 2004)}

"Seventy-five were found to be active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, 46 were active against an antibiotic supersusceptible strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and 18 of these were also active against a wild type strain. The extracts with the broadest spectra of activity were prepared from: Alnus rubra bark and catkins, Fragaria chiloensis leaves, Moneses uniflora aerial parts, and Rhus glabra branches." ^{(mccutcheon1992)}

"The extracts which exhibited the broadest spectra of activity (activity against at least 10 bacteria) were: Alnus rubra bark and catkins, ...." ^{(mccutcheon1992)}

"The extracts with the greatest activity against P. aeruginosa H187 (wild type) were: Alnus rubra catkins, ...." ^{(mccutcheon1992)}

"The extracts with the greatest activity against the methicillin-resistant S. aureus strain were: Alnus rubra bark, .... " ^{(mccutcheon1992)}

Antibiotic

"One hundred methanol plant extracts were screened for antibiotic activity against Mycobacterium tuber- culosis and Mycobacterium avium.... extracts of Alnus rubra Bong. (Betulaceae) bark and catkins, Empetrum nigrum L. (Empetraceae) branches, Glehnia littoralis F. Schmidt (Umbelliferae) roots and Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Math. et Const. (Umbelliferae) roots completely inhibited the growth of both test organisms at a concentration equivalent to 100 mg dried plant material (50 µl extract/disc)." ^{(mccutcheon1997)}

Antifungal

Catkins: "One hundred methanolic plant extracts were screened for antifungal activity against 9 fungal species. Eighty-one were found to have some antifungal activity and 30 extracts showed activity against 4 or more of the fungi assayed. The extracts with the greatest fungal inhibition were prepared from Alnus rubra catkins, ...." ^{(mccutcheon1994)}

"The extracts of Alnus rubra catkins and Gewn macrophyllum aerial parts gave zones of inhibition comparable to that of the positive control (Nystatin) against Aspergillus fumigatus." ^{(mccutcheon1994)}

"Only 5 extracts exhibited a strong inhibitory effect on Trichoderma viridae: Alnus rubra catkins, ...." ^{(mccutcheon1994)}

"It is also interesting to note that while the ex- tracts of both the catkins and bark of Alnus rubra had very good antibiotic activity, only the catkin extract exhibited broad spectrum antifungal activ- ity." ^{(mccutcheon1994)}

Phytochemicals

"Alnus rubra Bong. (Betulaceae) is a commonly occurring deciduous tree of the river valleys and moist coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest. Called the red alder tree, this species gets its name from the reddish-orange color which quickly develops on freshly exposed wood or bark. Indigenous peoples have used the bark of this tree for both coloring materials and medicines (1 -3). Medicinal uses of the bark have been varied and include purgatives, general tonics, and teas for the treatment of digestive and respiratory problems. A bark tea has also been used to relieve heart pain. Previous chemical investigations have led to the isolation of triterpe-noids (4, 5), the diarylheptanoid xyloside oregonin (6), and a procyanidin polymer (7). Oregonin and its aglycone were recently shown to be associated with the antibiotic activity (8) exhibited by a red alder bark methanol extract (9). In the present investigation of non-glycosidic diarylheptanoids of red alder bark, we report on the isolation and structural elucidation of the new compound 1-(3',4'-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4'-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one (1) and the known compound 1,7-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one (2), Compound 2 has not been previously preorted in red alder. The isolation of these compounds from red alder bark has increased the known diversity of diarylheptanoid structures in this species which is finding renewed use as an indigenous medicine." ^[PDAR]

Betulin - Stem & Bark (AllHerb1998) ^[Duke2]

"Previous chemical investigations have led to the isolation of triterpe- noids (4, 5), the diarylheptanoid xyloside oregonin (6), and a procyanidin polymer (7). Oregonin and its aglycone were recently shown to be associated with the antibiotic activity (8) exhibited by a red alder bark methanol extract (9). In the present investigation of non-glycosidic diarylheptanoids of red alder bark, we report on the isolation and structural elucidation of the new compound 1-(3c4'-dihydroxyphenyl)- 7-(4"-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one (1) and the known compound 1,7-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one (2)." ^{(Chen et al.,1997)}

Cultivation

"Prefers a heavy soil and a damp situation[1, 11]. Grows well in heavy clay soils[11]. Tolerates very infertile sites[200]. A very wind resistant tree with excellent establishment in severely exposed sites, it tolerates severe maritime exposure[75, K]. The red alder is a very fast growing tree, even when planted in severe exposure[75, 229, K], but it is short-lived, dying when 60 - 80 years old[229]. Trees that are 5 years old from seed have reached 6 metres in height on a very exposed site in Cornwall, they are showing no signs of wind-shaping[K]. This is an important pioneer tree, quickly invading logged or burnt over sites, and providing ideal conditions for other trees to become established[229, K]. A very ornamental tree[1]. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil micro-organisms, these form nodules on the roots of the plants and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby[200]. Red alder has been estimated to fix as much as 300 kg of nitrogen per hectare[269]." ^[PFAF]

"Red alder grows rapidly for the first quarter century of its life; growth slows substantially thereafter. Some stands begin to show dieback and other symptoms of aging as early as 40 years. Reasons for the growth decline and deterioration are unknown, but such problems are observed at earlier ages on sites of low quality than on sites of high quality" ^(debell1984)

"Results also indicate that foliar concentrations of P, N, and S were usually lowest in the 42- or 45-year-old stands. Such findings, in addition to the aforementioned negative correlations, suggest that supplies of one or more of these elements may become limiting in red alder stands more than 40 years old. Nutrient deficiencies may, therefore, be involved to some extent in the growth decline and deterioration of red alder stands with age. This view is supported, first, by greenhouse studies now in progress which indicate that red aider is very sensitive to low soil P. Secondly, as with agricultural legumes, decreasing status of important nutrients such as P and S in the soils and leaves may adversely affect root and nodule development. This could depress N 2-fixation and, in turn, lead to lower foliar N concentrations, growth decline, and premature aging of aider." ^(debell1984)

Nitrogen Fixation

"In temperate forestry, woody legumes have played a minor role except in land reclamation, and are less important in forest ecology than nonleguminous trees and shrubs which bear nitrogen-fixing nodules. Two common features characterize this diverse group: All are woody perennials although some are quite small, and nodules form in response to infection by actinomycetes. This group of plants is likely to be of major importance in wood-yield improvement efforts because it includes the species Alnus rubra, which is probably the highest-yielding temperate-zone tree (SMITH and DEBELL 1973; GORDON 1975). Young natural stands of red alder in the Pacific Northwest of the United States have been estimated to yield between 15 and 25 tons of above-ground dry biomass per hectare per year without man's assistance. In addition, the group is genetically diverse, indicating that the relationship between host and endophyte is more flexible than in the legumes.
Thus, if transfer of nitrogen-fixing ability to additional plants is to be attempted, it should be attempted with actinomycete endophytes rather than with rhizobial endophytes of the leguminous plants. The actinorhizal plants also include representatives native to a wide variety of geographical locations and forest habitats, making wide utilization in forest culture possible." ^(gordon1979)

"For warm-temperate climates, the most promising species are red alder (Alnus rubra) and Italian alder (A. cordata). For cool-temperate climates, where winter hardiness is important, European black alder (A. glutinosa) and European gray alder (A. incana) show the most promise. In addition, tag alder (A. crispa) can be utilized as a nurse tree because its shade intolerance would preclude its persistence in stands after establishment of the associated crop." ^(gordon1979)

"In the Pacific Northwest, Alnus rubra Bong. (red alder) has enhanced the growth and yield of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco. (Douglas- fir) especially on sites low in productivity and nitrogen capital. N2 fixers that grow more slowly than non N2 fixers can be beneficial, but N2 fixers such as alder with fast juvenile growth are easily capable of suppressing associated species with slower juvenile growth such as Douglas-fir. Growth reductions in Douglas-fir have been related to water use by the N2 fixers Ceanothus velutinus velutinus Dougl. (snowbrush) and red alder. Reductions in P have also been associated with stands of red alder. Conversely, fast-growing trees such as Populus sp. are capable of faster juvenile growth than associated Alnus sp., and non N2 fixing trees with fast juvenile growth show increased height growth as distance to the N2 fixer decreases." ^{(helgerson1984)}

"After one growing season, survival rates for the broom and plug alder planted in 1979 were significantly better than the other propagules and other planting dates (Table 1). Deer or elk browsing damaged some broom and alder, and most snowbrush were clipped off near ground level by rodents. The surviving snowbrush were judged to be too few and too damaged to be assayed for nitrogenase activity.
The mean values for nodule activity and plant activity (nodule activity x nodule dw) showed considerable variation both on individual sampling dates and over the growing season for both species, with differences appearing between sampling dates 1 day apart in September for nodule activity (Figs. 2, 3). Averaged over all sampling dates, nodule activity for broom was approximately three times greater than for alder. For plant activity, however, the positions were reversed, with alder having about 3.5 times more activity than broom (Table 2). The large differences in nodule activity appear to be offset by differences in the amount of nodules per plant. For alder, nodule dw averaged 2.4 percent of top dw (leaf plus stem dw), whereas for broom, nodule dw averaged just 0.38 percent of top dw. The tendency for nodule weight to offset unequal nodule activities has also been observed between red alder and Alnus sinuata (Reg.) Rybd. s. Using the ratio of the means, broom had a much higher ratio of leaf-to-nodule dw (11.5) compared to alder 5.94), but broom leaves made up a far smaller portion of top dw (4.4 percent) than alder (14.3 percent). .... Broom had far less of its top dw as foliage and a far greater leaf-to-nodule ratio than did alder. However, broom's nodule activity expressed as leaf dw was greater than alder's. This suggests that broom leaves may be more efficient than alder at supplying photosynthate to nodules or that broom's young green stems can also supply photosynthate to root nodules. The importance of broom's stems is suggested by the activity recorded in February when it had no leaves, and by an observed cessation of nodule activity when broom's young green stems were killed by frost.
The activity observed in February in the alder occurred in leafless plants sampled on south facing lower elevation sites free of snow with soil temperatures of 6^oC The rates are higher than reported in a summary of other studies of N2 fixation during plant dormancy. The observed activity may indicate that appreciable N2 fixation may occur under some wintertime conditions although the rates may have resulted from unnoticed ethylene contamination.
For alder sampled mid-season in 1979, nodule and plant activities were greater than the 10 month averages. The leaf-to-top dw ratio at this time was 0.31, compared to 0.14 for the 10 month average. The increase in acetylene reduction coupled with an increase in leaf mass is consistent with previously observed relationships between photosynthesis and N₂ fixation.
Over the growing season, neither nodule nor plant activities for either species were associated with precipitation events, soil temperature or moisture stress. Examination of plotted values did not reveal any obvious relations with these variables or for diurnal trends of N-fixation. Soil temperature and plant moisture stress were un- related to acetylene reduction on individual sampling dates through the season or for the 54 alders sampled in mid 1979. Nor was basal area of surrounding Douglas-fir or percent sunlight related to nitrogen fixation or plant size. The lack of diurnal trends or any relations between nitrogen fixation and soil temperature, light, plant moisture stress or surrounding basal area is puzzling given the considerable research that shows fixation rates to be often related to those variables. It is possible that the effects of these variables masked each such as phenological development, planting shock, or an inadequate sample size." ^{(helgerson1984)}

"This study and others cited show a relationship between plant size, surrounding stand density, available nitrogen and N2 fixation. These results indicate that the Verhulst-Pearl logistic equations that describe competition between two organisms offer a convenient starting point for predicting whether the addition of a N2 fixing plant will enhance the yield of a stand of non N2 fixers. They appear to be able to incorporate factors that may affect Nz supply: the percentage of N 2 fixers on the site, the Nz fixation rate, and the availability of N to associated trees is. For a single species, one form of the logistic equation is where (P) denotes population size or total biomass; (a/b) is the upper limit on population growth established as a number of individuals or biomass that a site can support; and the parameter (a) represents an intrinsic growth rate based on current site resources. The population growth rate slows as (P) approaches the carrying capacity of the site (a/b)...." ^{(helgerson1984)}

"Broom and red alder are capable of survival and nitrogen fixation beneath precommercially thinned Douglas-fir on sites typical of those found in the central Oregon Cascade mountains. The difference in survival between stocktypes and planting year illustrates the need to use vigorous propagules. The increase in size of the red alder 5 to 6 years after planting, the strong relationships between size of the alder and total leaf N, and the negative relationship between size and sur- rounding basal area of Douglas-fir are further evidences that nitrogen fixation is proportional to plant growth and photosynthetic area and that it may be controlled by the presence of the surrounding conifer. If so, the logistic equations may indicate whether the addition of a nitrogen fixing plant species will increase the yield of a non N2 fixer." ^{(helgerson1984)}

Propogation
"Seed - best sown in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe and only just covered[200]. Spring sown seed should also germinate successfully so long as it is not covered[200, K]. The seed should germinate in the spring as the weather warms up. When large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots. If growth is sufficient, it is possible to plant them out into their permanent positions in the summer, otherwise keep them in pots outdoors and plant them out in the spring. If you have sufficient quantity of seed, it can be sown thinly in an outdoor seed bed in the spring[78]. The seedlings can either be planted out into their permanent positions in the autumn/winter, or they can be allowed to grow on in the seed bed for a further season before planting them. Cuttings of mature wood, taken as soon as the leaves fall in autumn, outdoors in sandy soil." ^[PFAF]

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi

A number of sporocarp and root tip morphotype studies have been conducted on the EM fungi associated with A. rubra (Neal et al. 1968; Molina 1979; Molina 1981; Miller et al. 1991). From these studies, it appears that A. rubra EM colonization is high and that assemblages are dominated by two Alnus-specific EM species, Alpova diplophloeus and Lactarius obscuratus. Only 11 EM species are known or suspected to associate with A. rubra across its geographic range, which is much lower than that of co-occurring EM hosts (e.g. Pseudotsuga menziesii may asso¬ciate with up to 2000 EM species (Trappe & Fogel 1977)). Host specificity of A. rubra EM assemblages was experimentally demonstrated by Miller et al. (1992), who found little overlap in the morphotypes of EM fungi colonizing A. rubra and P. menziesii seedlings grown in the same soils collected from different forest successional stages. ^[EMF]

At each site, we located a 900 m2 area for EM root tip sampling. Twenty 15 cm3 soil cores were taken from within 2 m of a randomly located A. rubra individual. An effort was made to take cores in areas where Frankia colonized roots were present to confirm host root identity. This was accomplished by removing the litter layer and first lightly raking in the vicinity of each randomly located tree. Frankia nodules are conspicuously colored and visible to the naked eye, so once a host root with a nodule was confirmed, the core was taken directly around it. ^[EMF]

Of the 385 root tips sequenced, 377 were successfully identified and 364 belonged to EM taxa. A total of 14 taxa were encountered across all sites.... Five taxa, Tomentella sp. 3, Alnicola escharoides, Lactarius cf. obscuratus, Tomentella sp. 1, and Alpova diplophloeus, accounted for 80 % of the EM tips sampled. The five dominant taxa were present at all four sites, while 5 EM taxa were unique to single sites..." ^[EMF]

Endophyic Fungi of Leaves and Twigs

"A study was designed to isolate potentially pathogenic, endophytic fungi of red alder (Alnus rubra). Apparently healthy leaves and 2- to 3-year-old twigs were collected at three and eight sites, respectively, surface sterilized, cut into small pieces, and incubated on 2% malt extract agar. Ninety percent of the leaves and more than 80% of the twigs were colonized by endophytic fungi; 40 different fungi were isolated and identified. Fungi previously recorded as plant pathogens dominated the endophyte community of leaves (Gnomonia setacea, Gnomoniella tubaeformis, and Septoria alni) but were only minor components of the fungal population of twigs (Melanconis alni and a Nectria species). Abundance of each fungus species and the species composition depended on the plant organ sampled and collection site. In twigs, three main types of endophyte associations occurred among sites: the first was dominated by the unidentified "Black Mycelium 2," the second by Phomopsis sp. 2, and the third by Ophiovalsa suffusa, Pezicula livida, and Phloeosporella sp. The endophyte community of leaves was dominated by G. setacea except at one site where G. tubaeformis was the predominant fungus." ^{(Sieber et al.)}

"The endophyte population of red alder includes fungi that are reported to be pathogens. Gnomonia setacea may cause leaf spotting and early abscission (Kessler 1978; Funk 1985). Gnomoniella tubaeformis was shown by Klebahn (1908) to cause spotting and lesions on alder leaves (Barr 1978; Sutton 1980). Septoria alni produces similar symptoms (Funk 1985). Melanconis spp. are known to be associated with cankers and branch diebacks of Alnus spp. (Kobayashi 1974; Funk 1981). According to Donvorth (1990), M. alni is associated with alder mortality in excess of 90% at various locations through most of the range of red alder on the Pacific coast." ^{(Sieber et al.)}

Synonyms

• A. oregona ^{[E-flora][PFAF]}
• Alnus oregona var. pinnatisecta Starker ^[E-flora]

References

• (Chen et al.,1997) Chen, Jie, Joseph J. Karchesy, and Rubén F. González-Laredo. "Phenolic diarylheptenones from Alnus rubra bark." Planta medica 64.01 (1998): 74-75.
• (debell1984) DeBell, D. S., and M. A. Radwan. "Foliar chemical concentrations in red alder stands of various ages." Plant and Soil 77.2 (1984): 391-394.
• [Duke]http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/ethnobot.pl?Alnus%20rubra, Accessed Dec 23, 2014
• [Duke2]http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=1448, Accessed Dec 23, 2014
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Alnus%20rubra&redblue=Both&lifeform=2 [Accessed: 11/26/2014 8:19:03 PM ]
• [EMF] A molecular and phylogenetic analysis of the structure and specificity of Alnus rubra ectomycorrhizal assemblages, Peter G. KENNEDY, Lee T. HILL, Fungal Ecology Volume 3, Issue 3, August 2010, Pages 195–204
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• (helgerson1984) Helgerson, Ole Terrence, J. C. Gordon, and D. A. Perry. "N2 fixation by red alder (Alnus rubra) and scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) planted under precommerically thinned Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)." Plant and soil 78.1 (1984): 221-233.
• (Irving H. Isenberg) Isenberg, Irving H. "Papermaking fibers." Economic Botany 10.2 (1956): 176-193.
• (Lans et al., 2007) Lans, Cheryl, et al. "Ethnoveterinary medicines used for ruminants in British Columbia, Canada." Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine 3.1 (2007): 11.
• (mccutcheon1992) McCutcheon, A. R., et al. "Antibiotic screening of medicinal plants of the British Columbian native peoples." Journal of Ethnopharmacology 37.3 (1992): 213-223.
• (mccutcheon1994) McCutcheon, A. R., et al. "Antifungal screening of medicinal plants of British Columbian native peoples." Journal of ethnopharmacology 44.3 (1994): 157-169.
• (mccutcheon1997) McCutcheon, A. R., et al. "Anti-mycobacterial screening of British Columbian medicinal plants." International Journal of Pharmacognosy 35.2 (1997): 77-83.
• [MNA] Mineral Nutrient Accumulation and Cycling in a Stand of Red Alder (Alnus Rubra), J. Turner, D. W. Cole and S. P. Gessel, Journal of Ecology > Vol. 64, No. 3, Nov., 1976
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Alnus+rubra, Accessed Jan 11, 2015
• [PDAR] Phenolic Diarylheptenones from Alnus rubra Bark, Jie Chen, Joseph J. Karchesy, and Ruben F. Gonzalez-Laredo, Planta Med 1998; 64(1): 74-75
• (Sieber et al.) Sieber, Thomas Niklaus, F. Sieber-Canavesi, and C. E. Dorworth. "Endophytic fungi of red alder (Alnus rubra) leaves and twigs in British Columbia." Canadian Journal of Botany 69.2 (1991): 407-411.
• (TURNER & DAVIS) Davis, Alison. "When everything was scarce”: tile role of plants as famine foods in Northwestern North America." J. Ethnobiol (1993).

Jourals of Interest

• Helgerson, Ole Terrence, J. C. Gordon, and D. A. Perry. "N2 fixation by red alder (Alnus rubra) and scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) planted under precommerically thinned Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)." Plant and soil 78.1 (1984): 221-233.
• Turner J, Cole DW, Gessel SP (1976) Mineral nutrient accumulation and cycling in a stand of red alder (Alnus rubra). J Ecol 64:965–974
• Saxena, G., McCutcheon, A.R., Farmer, S., Hancock, R.E.W. and Towers, G.H.N. (1994) Antimicrobial compounds from Alnus rubra Bong. International Journal of Pharmacology, in press.
• Sieber, T. N., Sieber-Canavesi, F. & Dorworth, C. E. (1991) Endophytic fungi of red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) leaves and twigs in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany 69: 407–411.

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