Butter-and-eggs - Linaria vulgaris

Identification

Linaria vulgaris is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft) by 0.6 m (2ft in).
It is hardy to zone (UK) 4 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from Jul to October, and the seeds ripen from Aug to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.It is noted for attracting wildlife.[PFAF]
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.^[PFAF]

• General: Perennial herb from a long creeping rhizome; stems erect, 10-80 cm tall, sometimes branched above, smooth, glaucous; milky juice appearing when stems or leaves broken. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Leaves: Alternate or the lowermost nearly opposite, numerous, unstalked, linear to narrowly lanceolate, smooth-margined, 2-10 cm long, smooth.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Flowers: Inflorescence a long, terminal, smooth to minutely glandular-hairy, spike-like cluster of numerous short-stalked flowers, at first dense, elongating in age; corollas bright yellow with a central, orange-hairy patch at the throat, 20-35 mm long including the long straight basal spur, which is about as long as the rest of the corolla, 2-lipped, the upper lip 2-lobed, the lower lip 3-lobed; calyces 2-4 mm long, deeply 5-lobed, the lobes nearly distinct, lanceolate; stamens 4.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Fruits: Capsules, egg-shaped to broadly cylindric, 5-10 mm long; seeds numerous, disc-shaped with broad wings, about 2 mm long, the central portion pimply.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Habitat / Range Moist to dry fields, roadsides, waste places and open forests; frequent in BC south of 57degreeN, except absent from the Queen Charlotte Islands, rare northward; introduced from Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} Hedgerows, by ditches, on dry banks and roadside verges. It is especially abundant in sandy and gravelly soils, and in chalk and limestone districts, and avoids acid soils[4, 7]. Europe, including Britain, from Norway south and east to the Pyrenees, Greece and W. Asia.^[PFAF]
• Origin Status: Exotic. ^[E-flora]
• Notes: Flowering dates for this species in our region range from June 14 to September 5, based on photo records in the E-Flora BC photo gallery and the Burke Museum photo gallery.^[E-flora]

Hazards

• One report suggests that the plant might be slightly toxic[76].^[PFAF]
• No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages.^[PDR]
• It is regarded with suspicion. The plant has a very disagreeable odor. A glucoside linariin has been isolated.^[MPP2]

Edible Uses

• Young Shoots: Young shoots - cooked[7]. Use with caution, see the notes above on toxicity. ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

• Dye: A yellow dye is obtained from the whole plant[7, 13]. It is obtained from the flowers according to other reports[4, 100]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Insecticide: A tea made from the plant has been used as an insecticide[222]. ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

Yellow toadflax has a long history of herbal use. It acts mainly on the liver and was once widely employed as a diuretic in the treatment of oedema[238]. It is little used now, but undoubtedly merits investigation[238]. ^[PFAF] True Toadflax is the flowering herb of Linaria vulgaris. The medicinal part is the fresh or dried herb.^[PDR]

• Whole Plant: The whole plant is antiphlogistic, astringent, cathartic, detergent, depurative, diuretic, hepatic, ophthalmic and purgative[4, 7, 9, 21]. It is gathered when just coming into flower and can be used fresh or dried[4, 238]. The plant is especially valued for its strongly laxative and diuretic activities[4]. It is employed internally in the treatment of oedema, jaundice, liver diseases, gall bladder complaints and skin problems[4, 222, 238].^[PFAF] **The plant should be used with caution. It should preferably only be prescribed by a qualified practitioner and should not be given to pregnant women[238]. Dosage is critical, the plant might be slightly toxic[21, 238]. The fresh plant, or an ointment made from the flowers, is applied to piles, skin eruptions etc[4, 222]. The juice of the plant, or the distilled water, is a good remedy for inflamed eyes and cleaning ulcerous sores[4].^[PFAF] Ojibwa Drug (Herbal Steam, Respiratory aid) Compound containing plant used as a bronchial inhalant in the sweat lodge.^[UMD-Eth-1] Iroquois Drug (Sedative, pediatric aid) Compound infusion of plants and flowers given to babies that cry too much.^[UMD-Eth-2]
  • Mode of Administration: The powdered form and the extract are used as a diuretic and a mild laxative (tea). Externally the herb is used in poultices.
    
  • Preparation: Tea infusion is prepared from 1 to 2 teaspoon-fuls of the drug and 2 to 4 cups of boiling water left to draw for 1 8 minutes.
    
  • Daily Dosage: Drink the tea during the course of the day.^[PDR]
    
  • Homeopathic: A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant[9]. It is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and cystitis[9]. ^[PFAF]
    
  • Externally it is applied to haemorrhoids, skin eruptions, sores and malignant ulcers[238]. ^[PFAF] Compress for haemorrhoids made from a macerate of fresh aerial parts.^[Gertsch]
    
• Leaves
  
  • Iroquois Drug (Antidiarrheal) Cold infusion of leaves taken for diarrhea.^[UMD-Eth-2]
    
  • Herb:
    • Unproven Uses: Yellow Toadflax is used internally to aid digestion problems and urinary tract disorders.^[PDR]
      
    • Externally, the herb is used for hemorrhoids, ablution of festering wounds, skin rashes and ulcus cruris. ^[PDR]
• Flowers
  
  • Harvesting: It should be collected when in flower, dried quickly, and kept excluded from the air. When fresh it has a peculiar, heavy, disagreeable odor, which is in a great measure dissipated by drying. [Remington USD20]
  • Properties: The taste is herbaceous, weakly saline, bitter, and slightly acrid. [Remington USD20]
  • This plant is said to be diuretic and cathartic, and has been used in dropsy, jaundice, and cutaneous eruptions. It is most conveniently employed in infusion. The fresh plant is sometimes applied, in the shape of poultice or fomentation, to hemorrhoids, and an ointment of the flowers has been employed for the same purpose, and also locally in diseases of the skin. The flowers are used in Germany as a yellow dye. [Remington USD20]

Folk Uses

• Iroquois Drug (Witchcraft Medicine)Compound infusion of smashed plants taken to vomit and remove bewitching, or as an anti-love medicine.^[UMD-Eth-2]

Lore

"It has had its medicinal uses in the past, even though strongly derivative of the doctrine of signatures. As Grigson put it, yellow suggests yellow, so one should not be surprised to find the early herbalists prescribing it for bladder problems. Parkinson. 1640, for instance, said, “the Tode Flaxe is accounted to be good, to cause one to make water”. Earlier, Gerard had claimed that the decoction would “provoke urine, in those that pisse drop by drop”, and it would unstop the kidneys and bladder. The same decoction was used for a second ailment, jaundice, also obviously from the same doctrine. Gerard produced yet another “yellow” remedy – “the decoction of Tode-flax taketh away the yellownesse and deformitie of the skinne, being washed and bathed therewith”. It can be used for warts, too – just rub it on (Tongue. 1965)." ^{[DPL Watts]}

• In Sussex it has served as a wart plant[141] ^{[DPL Watts]}
• In Gloucestershire it has been mixed with yarrow leaves in a poultice to ease pain, staunch bleeding and induce sleep.[142] ^{[DPL Watts]}

"Though frequent to common over much of the British Isles at least since the time of William Turner, it tends to occupy only [late-created] habitats and has the suspect look of a slow-spreading invader from the Continent. That so conspicuous and easily distinguished a plant scarcely features as a folk herb in the British Isles, even though long established in official medicine, adds strength to that suspicion."^[MPFT]

Phytochemicals

• Contains Linaric acid and Vasicinol ^{[Ramawat NP]}
• (+-)-Peganine ^{[Azimova Alkaloids]}
• Linarin, pectolinarin, and linariin are present in Linaria vulgaris. ^[HPEP]

Pharmacology

• The main active agents are the flavon glycosides linarin and pectolinarin, pectin, phytosterol, tannic acid and vitamin C.^[PDR]
• The drug is anti-inflammatory. Diaphoretic and diuretic effects have been documented.^[PDR]

Cultivation

Succeeds in a moderately good well-drained soil[1]. Grows best in a neutral to alkaline soil[238]. It prefers a sunny position[111] but also succeeds in semi-shade[219]. A very drought resistant plant once established[200], it can be grown in a drystone wall[219]. Plants can spread fairly aggressively at the roots when they are in a suitable position[K]. They also often self-sow freely[238]. A good bee plant[24].^[PFAF]

• Dynamic Accumulator for Composting: Can accumulate Mg, Ca and Fe. ^[DANFC]

Propagation

Seed - sow early spring in situ. Division in April or the autumn. Very easy, larger clumps can be replanted direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to pot up smaller clumps and grow them on in a cold frame until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the spring. This species can be divided successfully at almost any time in the growing season.[PFAF]

• Originally brought to Canada and cultivated as an ornamental [Elmore EON]
• Dynamic accumulator - Mg, Ca and Fe. ^{[Dynamic accumulators]}

Synonyms

• Linaria linaria (L.) Karst. ^[E-flora]

References

• [DANFC]Dynamic Accumulators of Nutrients for Composting
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Linaria%20vulgaris&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 2/11/2015]
• [Gertsch]Phyllanthus piscatorum, ethnopharmacological studies on a women’s medicinal plant of the Yanomami Amerindians, Jürg Gertsch, Niomawë , Kathrin Gertsch-Roost, Otto Sticher
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Linaria+vulgaris, Accessed Feb 11, 2015
• [UMD-Eth] Accessed Feb 11, 2015, http://herb.umd.umich.edu/
  • (1)Smith, Huron H. 1932 Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of Milwaukee 4:327-525 (p. 389)
  • (2)Herrick, James William 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. State University of New York, Albany, PhD Thesis (p. 433)

Linaria Sp. - Toadflax

"Annual to perennial herb, generally glabrous. Stem: erect, simple or branched at base. Leaf: generally opposite or whorled (or distal alternate), sessile, linear to ovate, generally wider on non-flowering shoots, entire to dentate, pinnately veined. Inflorescence: spike or raceme, terminal; bracts reduced, alternate. Flower: sepals 5, free to near base, lobes ± equal; corolla 5-lobed, 2-lipped, lower lip >= upper, lower side of tube spurred at base, lower side of throat swollen, ± hairy, ± closing corolla below lips; stamens 4, in 2 pairs, included; stigma small, lobes 0 or 2, flat. Fruit: opening by slits into chambers near tip, ± spheric. Seed: many, flat and winged or pyramid-shaped and 0–3-ridged.
± 100 species: Europe, Asia, northern Africa; many cultivated. (Latin: flax, from flax-like leaves of some) [Sutton 1988 Revision tribe Antirrhineae. Oxford Univ Press] Corolla length includes spur. Linaria supina (L.) Chaz. mistakenly reported for California in TJM (1993). Linaria canadensis moved to Nuttallanthus." ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Linaria genistifolia - Dalmatian toadflax ^[E-flora]
2. Linaria purpurea - purple toadflax ^[E-flora]
3. Linaria vulgaris - butter-and-eggs ^[E-flora]

Linaria sp. Linaria Species (Vol. X, p. 571)
Most of the 15 species examined contained peganine or Dragendorff-positive compounds (130).[TheAlkaloidsChem&PhysiologyV.12]

Linaria Canadensis - Blue Toadflax
Range:"N. America - Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Minnesota, Oregon, Texas and California." ^[PFAF]
Medicinal Use: "The leaves are antihaemorrhoidal, diuretic and laxative[61, 254]. They are applied externally in the treatment of haemorrhoids[254]." ^[PFAF]

Linaria hirta - Flowers eaten raw.[Ethnospain]

References

• [PFAF] Accessed Feb 11, 2015, www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Linaria+canadensis
• [E-flora] 2013. Linaria, Robert E. Preston & Margriet Wetherwax, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=11372, accessed on Jan 24 2015
• [Ethnospain]Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain, JAVIER TARDÍO, MANUEL PARDO-DE-SANTAYANA, and RAMÓN MORALES, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 152