Amaranthus retroflexus
Amaranthus retroflexus
Amaranthus retroflexus
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Practical ecological knowledge for the temperate reader. |
Family: Amaranthaceae - Amaranth [E-flora]
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Amaranthus retroflexus |
Amaranthus retroflexus |
Amaranthus retroflexus |
Annual (short-lived perennial herb); monoecious or dioecious. [Jepson]
"+/- 70 species: worldwide; weeds, ornamentals, food plants. (Greek: unfading, non-withering) [Costea et al. 2001 Sida 19:931–974, 975–992; Sauer 1967 Ann Missouri Bot Gard 54:103–137] Hybrids common, F1 generally with numerous, densely packed bractlets beneath generally sterile pistillate flowers, abnormal-shaped inflorescence with dense, twisted or fan-shaped branches. Unless otherwise noted, descriptions of bracts and flower parts are of pistillate flowers.
Unabridged references: [Sauer 1955 Madroño 13:5–46]
Unabridged note: F1 hybrids have been observed in natural conditions or have been experimentally obtained between any of the following species: Amaranthus hybridus, Amaranthus powellii, Amaranthus retroflexus, Amaranthus tuberculatus, Amaranthus palmeri, Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus, Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus blitoides, Amaranthus albus. Amaranthus caudatus L., Amaranthus cruentus L., Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. frequently cultivated as ornamentals, occasionally escaping from cultivation. Amaranthus spinosus L. probably not naturalized, uncommon waif."[Jepson]
"Amaranthus belonging to the family Amaranthaceae comprises a series of wild, weedy, cultivated species and found worldwide in almost all agricultural environments. Amaranth is a very ancient crop. Its presence in Mexico dates from 4000 B.C. in Tehuacan, Puebla (Teutonico and Knorr 1985), and thus it is one of the oldest known plants. Amaranthus species have different centers of domestication and origin, being widely distributed in North America, Central America, and the South American Andes, India, and Nepal where the greatest genetic diversity is found (Sun et al. 1999; Xu and Sun 2001; Zheleznov et al. 1997). It is estimated that there are 87 species of Amaranthus: 17 in Europe, 14 in Australia and 56 in America (Mujica and Jacobsen 2003). Three species of the genus Amaranthus produce edible seeds: Amaranthus hypochondriacus, grown in Mexico; Amaranthus cruentus, grown in Guatemala and Mexico; and Amaranthus caudatus, grown in Peru. This grain was an important nutrient for the Aztec, Maya and Inca. Due to its high-quality protein, especially its relatively high Lys content (Downton 1973) and the presence of sulfur amino acids (Segura-Nieto et al. 1992), this crop has received considerable attention as a supplement to cereals and legumes to prevent protein malnutrition and is known as pseudocereal (Barba de la Rosa et al. 1992; Zheleznov et al. 1997; Gorinstein et al. 2001)." [Phytorem2]
"The genus Amaranthus consists of approximately 60 species out
of which about 18 are occurring in India. Of these, only seven are in
cultivation, while others grow as escapes near human habitats/
cultivated field and in waste lands. Most of the species have 2n =
32 or 34, while the polyploid species A. dubius has 2n = 64 but all
are collectively called amaranths. The four suggested grain
amaranth regions in the New World are: 1) the Mexican centre
which is dominated by A. hypochondriacus; 2) Guatemala with its
dominant crop of A. cruentus; 3) the Andes with A. caudatus and 4)
Argentina with A. edulis (Gautam, et al., 1999). Subsequent
analysis revealed that A. edulis was in fact a variety of A. caudatus
thus, the two regions, Andes and Argentina could be considered as
one centre. A. caudatus may have been domesticated from an early
introduction of A. cruentus which subsequently crossed with wild
Amaranthus species (Sauer, 1993). Isozyme and RAPD marker
studies suggested that A. hybridus is a common ancestor to all
cultivated grain amaranth species (Chan and Sun, 1997). The
archeological evidence from Mexico shows that A. cruentus
preceded A. hypochondriacus.
Grain amaranth is cultivated as a minor crop in many countries
of the world. In India, amaranth grain has a very high place.... Grain amaranth is widely grown in the
mountainous regions as well as in the plains.... Amaranths are
well adapted to both temperate and tropical conditions. However, its cultivation in the high altitude Himalayan region beyond 1500 m is
widespread and extends up to an altitude of 3000 m." [Peter BUHC]
"No members of this genus are known to be poisonous, but when grown on nitrogen-rich soils they are known to concentrate nitrates in the leaves. This is especially noticeable on land where chemical fertilizers are used. Nitrates are implicated in stomach cancers, blue babies and some other health problems. It is inadvisable, therefore, to eat this plant if it is grown inorganically." [PFAF]
"The seeds of Amaranthus sp. (Amaranth) and Chenopodium quinoa (Quinoa) are edible and used as pseudocereals." [Mroczek, Agnieszka, 2015]
Zimbabwe cuisine: "The staple food of the Shona people is the ubiquitous sadza, stiff maize meal
porridge, which might serve as breakfast, lunch, or dinner. It is usually eaten
with vegetables and relish and less often with meat. Sadza can also be made
from ingredients other than maize; pea-porridge (rutenho) is made with
beans and black-eyed peas, and nhopi is pumpkin porridge.
The relish that goes with sadza can be made from a variety of vegetables,
and can be seasoned with fruits and nuts and enriched with insects. For example, it could be made by boiling wild amaranthus leaves and mixing them
with homemade peanut butter." [Owomoyela]
Amaranthus spp.; "Cultivated from time immemorial for food purposes, A. caudatus seeds were a staple food in the diet of the Aztecs, who also consumed the aerial parts as greens. In North America, leaves of a number of species were consumed, and today the leaves of some of these species, naturalized in many other tropical and subtropical regions, are still an important wild food in eastern Africa. A. retroflexus is important in parts of southern Italy and North Africa." [Prance TCHP]
Amaranthus blitum; "Seeds are warmed on Tawa and eaten with honey during winter, fried seeds mixed with jaggery to form Laddu (sweets). Chapatis frequent as of grinded seeds during winter rains were very common in past. Boiled and fried leaves and tenders are used as green vegetables" (Chandra et al., 2013) [Pullaiah EOI]
A. caudatus L. - Whole plant - The tender plant is used as vegetable (Mir, 2014; Rana et al., 2012) [Pullaiah EOI]
A. creuntus L. Shoots, leaves Young shoots and leaves made into vegetable (Tiwari et al., 2010) [Pullaiah EOI]
A. paniculatus L. Seeds, leaves Fried, vegetable (Srivastava, 1988) [Pullaiah EOI]
A. spinosus L. Leaves, shoots Fresh leaves are boiled and cooked as vegetable (Gupta, 1962; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2006; Pant and Samant, 2010) [Pullaiah EOI]
A. tricolor L. Leaves Used as vegetable (Srivastava, 1988) [Pullaiah EOI]
A. viridis L. Shoots, leaves Young shoots and leaves cooked as vegetable (Chandra et al., 2013; Dangwal et al., 2014) [Pullaiah EOI]
"Inca wheat, Amaranthus caudatus, was domesticated in the high Andes and is still cultivated by the Quechua Indians sparsely, but over a wide region. It is mainly intercropped with corn or quinoa. The seeds are usually roasted or popped, and are often consumed as balls mixed with molasses." [Prance TCHP]
Amaranthus spp.; "A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus were domesticated in Mesoamerica. Amaranth, known as huautli, was as important as beans and corn to the Aztec civilization of Mexico. The early Spanish conquerors noted that it was used in tortillas made from popped grains, and in a range of drinks. Popped amaranth tamale breads were offered to the fire god Xiuhtecutli in Aztec rituals. A mixture of popped amaranth and the syrup of maguey cactus (Agave cantula) played a key role in a form of communion that honored the gods. Cultivation rapidly declined after the Spanish conquest, perhaps in part because of Christian disapproval of these practices. The domestication and early history of the New World amaranth species is not well documented, but it is likely that cultivation of all three species dates back at least 4000 years. All three species are increasingly cultivated in south Asia. Many amaranths are gathered or cultivated elsewhere, but as leafy vegetables." [Prance TCHP]
Amaranthus spp.; "Several members of this family are grown as important leaf vegetables in tropical Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean area. Amaranthus tricolor, Chinese or vine spinach, is one of the most widely used for its leaves. It seems to have been native to India. The leaves are often sliced and stir fried. Some species of Amaranthus are traditionally grown as pseudo-cereal crops for their seeds especially in Central and South America, for example A. caudatus Inca wheat. A. cuentas is a popular leaf vegetable in most of sub-Saharan Africa and is also grown as a grain." [Prance TCHP]
Amaranthus gangeticus - Whole Plant - "Lactagogue, Febrifuge, Eye wash, Galactagogue. Menorrhagia, Diarrhoea, Haemorrhages, Antipyretic, Expectorant emetic Emmenagogue, biliousness" [Peter BUHC]
Amaranthus hybridus "Red Amaranth, or Prince's Feather, Amaranthus hybridus, a weed in waste and cultivated grounds, is found over most of North America. It is cultivated in India for its seeds, which are eaten and used as a potherb in the West Indies. Its seeds are eaten by Indians of the Southwest." [EWP]
Amaranthus paniculatus: Leaves - "Diuretic, Blood purifier, piles Soporific, Narcotic, Appetizer" [Peter BUHC]
Amaranthus spinosus: Root, leaves - "Alexiteric, Digestive, Diuretic, Antipyretic, piles biliousness, Leucorrhoea, Hallucination, blood diseases, Leprosy Bronchitis. Expectorant, Gonorrhoea Eczema." [Peter BUHC]
Amaranthus viridis: Leaves - Laxative [Peter BUHC]
Amaranthus viridis L., A. tricolor L., A. lividus L., A. blitum L. - Leaves, shoots - Blood enhancer, good eye health [Peter BUHC]
"Analysis of foliage of 61 accessions of Amaranthus species comprising both grain and vegetable types, revealed a high degree of variation for leaf protein (14-43 g/kg), carotenoid (60-200 mg/kg), nitrate (1.8-9.2 g/kg) and oxalate (3.0-19.2 g/kg)." [Peter BUHC]
Amaranthus sp. - Amaranthaceae
Chemical/Part/Loppm/Hippm/Reference
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"Sugars in Amaranthaceae saponins are linked to the aglycone at the C-3 or/and C-28, but C-23 glycosides can be also encountered. Most of the Amaranthaceae saponins possess bisdesmosidic structure and so far only one tridesmosidic saponin was isolated from Amaranthus caudatus (Rastrelli et al. 1995)." [Mroczek, Agnieszka, 2015]
"Differences, although subtle, could be observed also in Amaranthus genus. Saponins from A. hypochondriacus (Kohda et al. 1991), A. caudatus (Rastrelli et al. 1995) and A. cruentus (Oleszek et al. 1999) possess common structural features.... However, they differ in the oxidation pattern at C-23 and C-6 aswell as in the composition of the oligosaccharide chain at C-3. Aglycones with the –CH3, –CH2OH or –CHO group at C-23 were described in A. hypochondriacus (Kohda et al. 1991), whereas aglycones with a –COOH group present atC-23 and a –OH group at C-6 were found in A. caudatus (Rastrelli et al. 1995) and in A. cruentus (Oleszek et al. 1999). Although saponins from a particular genera posses similar pattern, some differences can be observed between the plants from the same genus. Thus, studies on Amaranthaceae phytochemicals have revealed that the chemical composition of saponins can vary regardless of the very close systematic relationship." [Mroczek, Agnieszka, 2015]
"Foods that contain significant concentrations of oxalic acid, such as .... Leaves, tubers, and green of Amaranthus gangeticus, Amaranthus spinosa,..." [PSM Harmana]
Amaranthus spp.;
"Days to Maturity: 40 to 50
When to Plant: plant seeds outdoors when soil is warm, or start plants early indoors in
pots.
How to Plant: cover seeds with no more than /4 inch of soil. Thin to 8 to 10 inches apart in
rows 12 to 15 inches apart. Use the thinnings as your first crop.
Growing Conditions: requires full sun, hot weather.
Remarks: flavor is best before flowering.
Grain Amaranth: this is a native American plant that was used a ceremonial food by the
Aztecs. It stands 4 to 7 feet tall, with heavy plumes of small protein-rich seeds.
Days to Maturity: 90 to 110" [NSSH Bubel]
"Autoinhibition has long been suggested as a mechanism to explain declining yields in agricultural fields planted with the same crop species over many years [60]. Whereas autoinhibition in agricultural crops has often been attributed to phytotoxins in decomposing leaf and stem tissue [60], some phytotoxins responsible for autotoxicity are also released in crop root exudates.... Autoinhibition may also play a role in natural plant communities, particularly among weedy species. Indeed, several invasive plants reported to be allelopathic are also autoinhibitory, including Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. [64,65]...." [Pinton TR]
Hyperaccumulator: "Hyperaccumulatory activity of various Amaranthus sp. has been investigated by various researchers. More researches have been carried out on the weed Amaranthus and it has been concluded that in a test of phytoextraction, the scientists found a crop ( Amaranthus hypochondriacus) which not only grows rapidly but also accumulates high levels of Cd metal (Li et al. 2009 ). When intercropped with maize, A. hypochondriacus accumulated over 50 mg/kg Cd in shoots and over 90 mg/kg Cd in roots from soil containing 3 mg/kg Cd. Amaranthus hypochondriacus has been widely used as forage for cattle. It grows very fast with a very high biomass, having an average biomass yield of 10–15 t h/m 2 (DW). In another experiment of monoculture, A. hypochondriacus accumulated more than 100 mg/kg Cd from soil containing 5 mg/kg Cd. Since this plant has long been used as forage species, the cultivation systems of the crop are well established and highly mechanized. It has great potential to efficiently extract Cd from contaminated soils. Amaranthus has been cultivated for a long time on a large scale in China, producing a good quality of forage." [Phytorem2]
"The hyperaccumulating capabilities of Amaranthus species are quite noticeable for Ni and Cd metals. The role of NPK fertilizer addition has also been positive on the removal capabilities." [Phytorem2]
Translocation of Organic Pollutants: "For pesticides based on carbamates acropetal translocation is typical. Examples are carbofuran in seedlings of soybean and mung bean (Vigna radiata) (Talekar et al. 1977), methyl-2-benzimidazole carbamate in seedlings of peanut (Vias et al. 1976; Prasad and Ellis 1978) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) (Mathur and Jhamaria 1975). The pesticides phenmedipham and desmedipham, penetrating through the leaves of wild mustard (Brassica kaber), Amaranthus and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), were translocated only acropetally (Hendrick et al. 1974). It was found that plant resistance to pollutants depends on their translocation direction. For instance, the herbicide buthidazole, uptaken by leaves of sensitive to this herbicide plant Amaranthus, is translocated in both directions acropetally and basipetally, but in resistant maize leaves transport proceeds only basipetally (Hatzios and Penner 1980). This herbicide is insignificantly translocated along the apoplast in soybean leaves (Haderlie 1980). 4,4′-methylene-bis(2-chloroaniline) applied to different plant leaves is absorbed but not translocated." [Ozturk PPT]
Radionuclides: "90Sr is relatively easily taken up by plants, but its availability may be inhibited by the application of Ca, Mg, K, and Na to soils. ... Amaranthus species are reported to be effective in phytoextraction of this nuclide from soils in the Chernobyl exclusion zone.1283" [Pendias SP]
General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect or ascending, several, glabrous to short-hairy, branching basally forming a rounded plant to 1 m tall, tending to break off at the base at maturity and then behaving as a "tumbleweed"." [IFBC-E-flora]
Habitat / Range: "Dry disturbed areas and waste places in the montane zone; infrequent in S BC; throughout N. America, S. America and the Old World." [IFBC-E-flora]
Status: Exotic [E-flora]
General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems prostrate or decumbent, several, glabrous to short-hairy, 30-70 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
Prostrate Amaranth, Amaranthus blitoides, which is found as a weed from Maine to North Dakota, south to New Jersey, Missouri, and Kansas, and is native west of the Rocky Mountains. [EWP]
Status: Exotic [E-flora]
Edible Uses
Seeds
General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, simple to freely branched, 0.3-2.0 m tall, grooved, often reddish, glabrous to short-hairy or sparsely hairy below the flowers." [IFBC-E-flora]
General: "Annual herb; stems 50-100 cm tall, simple to freely branched, long-hairy with dandruff-like scales below the flowers." [IFBC-E-flora]
"The redroot amaranth can be easily mistaken for other pigweeds, mostly for the Powell’s amaranth (Amaranthus powellii), which it resembles with its spikelike, elongated inflorescence. What separates them is mostly the conspicuous hairiness of the stems and leaves of the redroot amaranth, as opposed to the scarcely (if at all) hairy Powell’s amaranth. When young or under poor growing conditions, the redroot amaranth might resemble the other two introduced pigweeds, the mat amaranth (Amaranthus blitoides) and white pigweed (Amaranthus albus). In these species, though, the leaves are much smaller and the inflorescences develop in small clusters in the axils of the leaves."
"Some of the members of the Goosefoot (Chenopodiaceae) family might be mistaken from a distance for the redroot amaranth, such as lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium album) or French spinach (Atriplex hortensis). However, these plants have smoother and thinner leaves, mostly wavy, all being hairless and powdery. Their inflorescences are not prickly, as in the redroot amaranth, but rather fleshy in the lamb’s quarters or sandwiched between a pair of leafy bracts in the French spinach."
"The redroot amaranth might occasionally be mistaken for the red-listed wedgescale saltbush (Atriplex truncata), which can grow in similar habitat conditions, in dry roadsides and waste places. It has wedged and greenish inflorescences, but they develop in the axils of the leaves. This species can be easily differentiated based on the grayish, not grass-green leaves. The whole plant is mealy coated and much more slender than the redroot amaranth."
Note Author Anna-Mária Csergo, February 2011.
[E-flora]
"Main dish: Plants such as Amaranthus retroflexus L., F. vulgare, C. intybus and C. arvense are cooked with onion, tomato paste, oil, meat, mushroom, chicken and water. Again as flavorings, spices like peppermint, Thymus sp., black pepper, and red pepper are added." [dogan2004]
Dye: "Yellow and green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant[168]." [PFAF]
Fodder: "Like many other species of Amaranthus, this plant may be harmful and even deadly when fed to cattle and pigs in large amounts. However, when supplied in moderation, it is regarded as an exceptionally nutritious fodder." [PFAF]
Phytoremediation: Amaranthus retroflexus showed high bioaccumulations factors but showed low biomass compared to other species and thus weak phytoextraction. Pesticide concentration decreased in the rhizosphere soil 11-24% more in treatments with fertilizer compared to treatments without fertilizer.[OPPPS]
"The perennial herb A. retroflexus is one of the common plants in the polluted areas of Kermanshah Petroleum site and could grow effectively on such soils. It propa- gates by means of seeds and underground gemma. After 6 months bioremediation using plants and their root associated fungal strains, concentrations of petroleum pollution were determined in the soil of controls and contaminated soils. The data showed that concentration of petroleum pollution decreased considerably in the all pots but was constant in control ones .... It also showed that decrease in the experimental pots containing plant together with all fungal strains was more than other groups (up to 80 %). Meanwhile, decrease of petroleum pollution was also considerable in the pots containing plant added Fusarium equiseti and F. reticulatum (up to 74 and 78 %). The data showed that all fungal species were capable to decrease petroleum pollution solitary..., but they were more effective when applied with the plant." [Ozturk PGE]
Radionuclides: "Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) was found by Lasat et al. (1998) to accumulate higher levels of 137Cs than other species evaluated" [PCSW]
"In field trials, redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) plants were able to accumulate over 900 pCi/g, which was well over the goal of 300 pCi/g. In these trials, pigweed showed better performance than B. juncea and Phaseolus acutifolius. Field trials on Cs-137 and Sr-90 contaminated soils are currently under way at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory." [Prasad HMSP]